第 22 章 ggplot2之几何形状

采菊东篱下，悠然见南山。

根据大家投票，觉得ggplot2是最想掌握的技能，我想这就是R语言中最有质感的部分吧。所以，这里专门拿出一节课讲ggplot2，也算是补上之前第 14 章数据可视化没讲的内容。

library(tidyverse)

22.1 一个有趣的案例

先看一组数据

df <- read_csv("./demo_data/datasaurus.csv")

## Rows: 1846 Columns: 3
## ── Column specification ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
## Delimiter: ","
## chr (1): dataset
## dbl (2): x, y
## 
## ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
## ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.

df

## # A tibble: 1,846 × 3
##    dataset     x     y
##    <chr>   <dbl> <dbl>
##  1 dino     55.4  97.2
##  2 dino     51.5  96.0
##  3 dino     46.2  94.5
##  4 dino     42.8  91.4
##  5 dino     40.8  88.3
##  6 dino     38.7  84.9
##  7 dino     35.6  79.9
##  8 dino     33.1  77.6
##  9 dino     29.0  74.5
## 10 dino     26.2  71.4
## # ℹ 1,836 more rows

先用dataset分组后，然后计算每组下x的均值和方差，y的均值和方差，以及x，y两者的相关系数，我们发现每组数据下它们几乎都是相等的

df %>%
  group_by(dataset) %>%
  summarise(
    across(everything(), list(mean = mean, sd = sd), .names = "{fn}_{col}")
  ) %>%
  mutate(
    across(is.numeric, round, 3)
  )

## Warning: There were 2 warnings in `mutate()`.
## The first warning was:
## ℹ In argument: `across(is.numeric, round, 3)`.
## Caused by warning:
## ! Use of bare predicate functions was deprecated in tidyselect 1.1.0.
## ℹ Please use wrap predicates in `where()` instead.
##   # Was:
##   data %>% select(is.numeric)
## 
##   # Now:
##   data %>% select(where(is.numeric))
## ℹ Run `dplyr::last_dplyr_warnings()` to see the 1 remaining warning.

## # A tibble: 13 × 5
##    dataset    mean_x  sd_x mean_y  sd_y
##    <chr>       <dbl> <dbl>  <dbl> <dbl>
##  1 away         54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  2 bullseye     54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  3 circle       54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  4 dino         54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  5 dots         54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  6 h_lines      54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  7 high_lines   54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  8 slant_down   54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
##  9 slant_up     54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
## 10 star         54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
## 11 v_lines      54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
## 12 wide_lines   54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9
## 13 x_shape      54.3  16.8   47.8  26.9

如果上面代码不熟悉，可以用第 12 章的代码重新表达，也是一样的

df %>%
  group_by(dataset) %>%
  summarize(
    mean_x = mean(x),
    mean_y = mean(y),
    std_dev_x = sd(x),
    std_dev_y = sd(y),
    corr_x_y = cor(x, y)
  )

## # A tibble: 13 × 6
##    dataset    mean_x mean_y std_dev_x std_dev_y corr_x_y
##    <chr>       <dbl>  <dbl>     <dbl>     <dbl>    <dbl>
##  1 away         54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0641
##  2 bullseye     54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0686
##  3 circle       54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0683
##  4 dino         54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0645
##  5 dots         54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0603
##  6 h_lines      54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0617
##  7 high_lines   54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0685
##  8 slant_down   54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0690
##  9 slant_up     54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0686
## 10 star         54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0630
## 11 v_lines      54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0694
## 12 wide_lines   54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0666
## 13 x_shape      54.3   47.8      16.8      26.9  -0.0656

那么，我们是否能得出结论，每组的数据长的差不多呢？然而，我们画图发现

事实上，每张图都相差很大。所以，这里想说明的是，眼见为实。换句话说，可视化是数据探索中非常重要的部分。本章的目的就是带领大家学习ggplot2基本的绘图技能。

22.2 学习目标

22.2.1 图形语法

图形语法 “grammar of graphics” (“ggplot2” 中的gg 就来源于此) 使用图层(layer)去描述和构建图形，下图是ggplot2图层概念的示意图

这个过程类似我们画一幅水彩画

22.2.2 图形部件

一张统计图形就是从数据到几何形状(geometric object，缩写geom)所包含的图形属性(aesthetic attribute，缩写aes)的一种映射。

1. data: 数据框data.frame (注意，不支持向量vector和列表list类型）

2. aes: 数据框中的数据变量映射到图形属性。什么叫图形属性？就是图中点的位置、形状，大小，颜色等眼睛能看到的东西。什么叫映射？就是一种对应关系，比如数学中的函数b = f(a)就是a和b之间的一种映射关系, a的值决定或者控制了b的值，在ggplot2语法里，a就是我们输入的数据变量，b就是图形属性， 这些图形属性包括：

   • x（x轴方向的位置）
   • y（y轴方向的位置）
   • color（点或者线等元素的颜色）
   • size（点或者线等元素的大小）
   • shape（点或者线等元素的形状）
   • alpha（点或者线等元素的透明度）

3. geoms: 几何形状，确定我们想画什么样的图，一个geom_***确定一种形状。更多几何形状推荐阅读这里

   • geom_bar()
   • geom_density()
   • geom_freqpoly()
   • geom_histogram()
   • geom_violin()
   • geom_boxplot()
   • geom_col()
   • geom_point()
   • geom_smooth()
   • geom_tile()
   • geom_density2d()
   • geom_bin2d()
   • geom_hex()
   • geom_count()
   • geom_text()
   • geom_sf()

图 22.1: Source: ggplot2 book

4. stats: 统计变换
5. scales: 标度
6. coord: 坐标系统
7. facet: 分面
8. layer： 增加图层
9. theme: 主题风格
10. save: 保存图片

图 22.2: ggplot2语法

22.3 开始

R语言数据类型，有字符串型、数值型、因子型、逻辑型、日期型等。 ggplot2会将字符串型、因子型、逻辑型默认为离散变量，而数值型默认为连续变量，将日期时间为日期变量：

• 离散变量: 字符串型, 因子型, 逻辑型

• 连续变量: 双精度数值, 整数数值

• 日期变量: 日期, 时间, 日期时间

我们在呈现数据的时候，可能会同时用到多种类型的数据，比如

• 一个离散

• 一个连续

• 两个离散

• 两个连续

• 一个离散, 一个连续

• 三个连续

22.3.1 导入数据

gapdata <- read_csv("./demo_data/gapminder.csv")

## Rows: 1704 Columns: 6
## ── Column specification ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
## Delimiter: ","
## chr (2): country, continent
## dbl (4): year, lifeExp, pop, gdpPercap
## 
## ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
## ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.

gapdata

## # A tibble: 1,704 × 6
##    country     continent  year lifeExp      pop gdpPercap
##    <chr>       <chr>     <dbl>   <dbl>    <dbl>     <dbl>
##  1 Afghanistan Asia       1952    28.8  8425333      779.
##  2 Afghanistan Asia       1957    30.3  9240934      821.
##  3 Afghanistan Asia       1962    32.0 10267083      853.
##  4 Afghanistan Asia       1967    34.0 11537966      836.
##  5 Afghanistan Asia       1972    36.1 13079460      740.
##  6 Afghanistan Asia       1977    38.4 14880372      786.
##  7 Afghanistan Asia       1982    39.9 12881816      978.
##  8 Afghanistan Asia       1987    40.8 13867957      852.
##  9 Afghanistan Asia       1992    41.7 16317921      649.
## 10 Afghanistan Asia       1997    41.8 22227415      635.
## # ℹ 1,694 more rows

22.3.2 检查数据

是否有缺失值

gapdata %>%
  summarise(
    across(everything(), ~ sum(is.na(.)))
  )

## # A tibble: 1 × 6
##   country continent  year lifeExp   pop gdpPercap
##     <int>     <int> <int>   <int> <int>     <int>
## 1       0         0     0       0     0         0

• country 代表国家
• countinet 表示所在的洲
• year 时间
• lifeExp 平均寿命
• pop 人口数量
• gdpPercap 人均GDP

接下来，我们需要思考我们应该选择什么样的图，呈现这些不同类型的数据，探索数据背后的故事

22.4 基本绘图

22.4.1 柱状图

常用于一个离散变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent)) +
  geom_bar()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = reorder(continent, continent, length))) +
  geom_bar()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = reorder(continent, continent, length))) +
  geom_bar() +
  coord_flip()

# geom_bar vs stat_count
gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent)) +
  stat_count()

gapdata %>% count(continent)

## # A tibble: 5 × 2
##   continent     n
##   <chr>     <int>
## 1 Africa      624
## 2 Americas    300
## 3 Asia        396
## 4 Europe      360
## 5 Oceania      24

可见，geom_bar() 自动完成了这个统计，更多geom与stat对应关系见这里

gapdata %>%
  distinct(continent, country) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent)) +
  geom_bar()

我个人比较喜欢先统计，然后画图

gapdata %>%
  distinct(continent, country) %>%
  group_by(continent) %>%
  summarise(num = n()) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = num)) +
  geom_col()

22.4.2 直方图

常用于一个连续变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_histogram() # corresponding to stat_bin()

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_histogram(binwidth = 1)

geom_histograms(), 默认使用 position = "stack"

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, fill = continent)) +
  geom_histogram()

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

也可以指定 position = "identity"

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, fill = continent)) +
  geom_histogram(position = "identity")

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

22.4.3 频次图

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, color = continent)) +
  geom_freqpoly()

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

22.4.4 密度图

#' smooth histogram = density plot
gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

如果不喜欢下面那条线，可以这样

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_line(stat = "density")

geom_density() 中adjust 用于调节bandwidth, adjust = 1/2 means use half of the default bandwidth.

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density(adjust = 1)

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density(adjust = 0.2)

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, color = continent)) +
  geom_density()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, fill = continent)) +
  geom_density(alpha = 0.2)

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent != "Oceania") %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, fill = continent)) +
  geom_density(alpha = 0.2)

直方图和密度图画在一起。注意y = stat(density)表示y是由x新生成的变量，这是一种固定写法，类似的还有stat(count), stat(level)

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent != "Oceania") %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, y = stat(density))) +
  geom_histogram(aes(fill = continent)) +
  geom_density() 

## Warning: `stat(density)` was deprecated in ggplot2 3.4.0.
## ℹ Please use `after_stat(density)` instead.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

22.4.5 箱线图

一个离散变量 + 一个连续变量，思考下结果为什么是这样？

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_boxplot()

## Warning: Continuous x aesthetic
## ℹ did you forget `aes(group = ...)`?

数据框中的year变量是数值型，需要先转换成因子型，弄成离散型变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = as.factor(year), y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_boxplot()

明确指定分组变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_boxplot(aes(group = year))

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_violin(aes(group = year)) +
  geom_jitter(alpha = 1 / 4) +
  geom_smooth(se = FALSE)

## `geom_smooth()` using method = 'gam' and formula = 'y ~ s(x, bs = "cs")'

22.4.6 抖散图

点重叠的处理方案

gapdata %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point()

gapdata %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_jitter()

gapdata %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_boxplot()

gapdata %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_boxplot() +
  geom_jitter()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_jitter() +
  stat_summary(fun.y = median, colour = "red", geom = "point", size = 5)

## Warning: The `fun.y` argument of `stat_summary()` is deprecated as of ggplot2 3.3.0.
## ℹ Please use the `fun` argument instead.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(reorder(x = continent, lifeExp), y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_jitter() +
  stat_summary(fun.y = median, colour = "red", geom = "point", size = 5)

注意到我们已经提到过 stat_count / stat_bin / stat_summary

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = continent, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_violin(
    trim = FALSE,
    alpha = 0.5
  ) +
  stat_summary(
    fun.y = mean,
    fun.ymax = function(x) {
      mean(x) + sd(x)
    },
    fun.ymin = function(x) {
      mean(x) - sd(x)
    },
    geom = "pointrange"
  )

## Warning: The `fun.ymin` argument of `stat_summary()` is deprecated as of ggplot2 3.3.0.
## ℹ Please use the `fun.min` argument instead.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

## Warning: The `fun.ymax` argument of `stat_summary()` is deprecated as of ggplot2 3.3.0.
## ℹ Please use the `fun.max` argument instead.
## This warning is displayed once every 8 hours.
## Call `lifecycle::last_lifecycle_warnings()` to see where this warning was
## generated.

22.4.7 山峦图

常用于一个离散变量 + 一个连续变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = lifeExp,
    y = continent,
    fill = continent
  )) +
  ggridges::geom_density_ridges()

## Picking joint bandwidth of 2.23

# https://learnui.design/tools/data-color-picker.html#palette
gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = lifeExp,
    y = continent,
    fill = continent
  )) +
  ggridges::geom_density_ridges() +
  scale_fill_manual(
    values = c("#003f5c", "#58508d", "#bc5090", "#ff6361", "#ffa600")
  )

## Picking joint bandwidth of 2.23

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = lifeExp,
    y = continent,
    fill = continent
  )) +
  ggridges::geom_density_ridges() +
  scale_fill_manual(
    values = colorspace::sequential_hcl(5, palette = "Peach")
  )

## Picking joint bandwidth of 2.23

22.4.8 散点图

常用于两个连续变量

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = log(gdpPercap), y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  scale_x_log10() # A better way to log transform

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point(aes(color = continent))

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point(alpha = (1 / 3), size = 2)

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_smooth()

## `geom_smooth()` using method = 'gam' and formula = 'y ~ s(x, bs = "cs")'

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_smooth(lwd = 3, se = FALSE)

## `geom_smooth()` using method = 'gam' and formula = 'y ~ s(x, bs = "cs")'

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_smooth(lwd = 3, se = FALSE, method = "lm")

## `geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp, color = continent)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_smooth(lwd = 3, se = FALSE, method = "lm")

## `geom_smooth()` using formula = 'y ~ x'

jCountries <- c("Canada", "Rwanda", "Cambodia", "Mexico")

gapdata %>%
  filter(country %in% jCountries) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = lifeExp, color = country)) +
  geom_line() +
  geom_point()

gapdata %>%
  filter(country %in% jCountries) %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = year, y = lifeExp,
    color = reorder(country, -1 * lifeExp, max)
  )) +
  geom_line() +
  geom_point()

这是一种技巧，但我更推荐以下方法

d1 <- gapdata %>%
  filter(country %in% jCountries) %>%
  group_by(country) %>%
  mutate(end_label = if_else(year == max(year), country, NA_character_))

d1

## # A tibble: 48 × 7
## # Groups:   country [4]
##    country  continent  year lifeExp      pop gdpPercap end_label
##    <chr>    <chr>     <dbl>   <dbl>    <dbl>     <dbl> <chr>    
##  1 Cambodia Asia       1952    39.4  4693836      368. <NA>     
##  2 Cambodia Asia       1957    41.4  5322536      434. <NA>     
##  3 Cambodia Asia       1962    43.4  6083619      497. <NA>     
##  4 Cambodia Asia       1967    45.4  6960067      523. <NA>     
##  5 Cambodia Asia       1972    40.3  7450606      422. <NA>     
##  6 Cambodia Asia       1977    31.2  6978607      525. <NA>     
##  7 Cambodia Asia       1982    51.0  7272485      624. <NA>     
##  8 Cambodia Asia       1987    53.9  8371791      684. <NA>     
##  9 Cambodia Asia       1992    55.8 10150094      682. <NA>     
## 10 Cambodia Asia       1997    56.5 11782962      734. <NA>     
## # ℹ 38 more rows

d1 %>% ggplot(aes(
  x = year, y = lifeExp, color = country
)) +
  geom_line() +
  geom_point() +
  geom_label(aes(label = end_label)) +
  theme(legend.position = "none")

## Warning: Removed 44 rows containing missing values (`geom_label()`).

如果觉得麻烦，就用gghighlight宏包吧

gapdata %>%
  filter(country %in% jCountries) %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = year, y = lifeExp, color = country
  )) +
  geom_line() +
  geom_point() +
  gghighlight::gghighlight()

## label_key: country

22.4.9 点线图

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent == "Asia" & year == 2007) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, y = country)) +
  geom_point()

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent == "Asia" & year == 2007) %>%
  ggplot(aes(
    x = lifeExp,
    y = reorder(country, lifeExp)
  )) +
  geom_point(color = "blue", size = 2) +
  geom_segment(aes(
    x = 40,
    xend = lifeExp,
    y = reorder(country, lifeExp),
    yend = reorder(country, lifeExp)
  ),
  color = "lightgrey"
  ) +
  labs(
    x = "Life Expectancy (years)",
    y = "",
    title = "Life Expectancy by Country",
    subtitle = "GapMinder data for Asia - 2007"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(
    panel.grid.major = element_blank(),
    panel.grid.minor = element_blank()
  )

22.4.10 分面

如果想分别画出每个洲的寿命分布图，我们想到的是这样

gapdata %>% 
  filter(continent == "Africa") %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

gapdata %>% 
  filter(continent == "Americas") %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

gapdata %>% 
  filter(continent == "Asia") %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

gapdata %>% 
  filter(continent == "Europe") %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

gapdata %>% 
  filter(continent == "Oceania") %>% 
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density()

事实上，ggplot2的分面，可以很快捷的完成。分面有两个 - facet_grid() - facet_wrap()

22.4.10.1 facet_grid()

• create a grid of graphs, by rows and columns
• use vars() to call on the variables
• adjust scales with scales = "free"

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp)) +
  geom_density() +
  facet_grid(. ~ continent)

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent != "Oceania") %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, fill = continent)) +
  geom_histogram() +
  facet_grid(continent ~ .)

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

gapdata %>%
  filter(continent != "Oceania") %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = lifeExp, y = stat(density))) +
  geom_histogram(aes(fill = continent)) +
  geom_density() +
  facet_grid(continent ~ .)

## `stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

22.4.10.2 facet_wrap()

• create small multiples by “wrapping” a series of plots
• use vars() to call on the variables
• nrow and ncol arguments for dictating shape of grid

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp, color = continent)) +
  geom_point(show.legend = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~continent)

22.4.11 文本标注

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  ggforce::geom_mark_ellipse(aes(
    filter = gdpPercap > 70000,
    label = "Rich country",
    description = "What country are they?"
  ))

ten_countries <- gapdata %>%
  distinct(country) %>%
  pull() %>%
  sample(10)

library(ggrepel)
gapdata %>%
  filter(year == 2007) %>%
  mutate(
    label = ifelse(country %in% ten_countries, as.character(country), "")
  ) %>%
  ggplot(aes(log(gdpPercap), lifeExp)) +
  geom_point(
    size = 3.5,
    alpha = .9,
    shape = 21,
    col = "white",
    fill = "#0162B2"
  ) +
  geom_text_repel(
    aes(label = label),
    size = 4.5,
    point.padding = .2,
    box.padding = .3,
    force = 1,
    min.segment.length = 0
  ) +
  theme_minimal(14) +
  theme(
    legend.position = "none",
    panel.grid.minor = element_blank()
  ) +
  labs(
    x = "log(GDP per capita)",
    y = "life expectancy"
  )

## Warning: ggrepel: 3 unlabeled data points (too many overlaps). Consider
## increasing max.overlaps

22.4.12 errorbar图

avg_gapdata <- gapdata %>%
  group_by(continent) %>%
  summarise(
    mean = mean(lifeExp),
    sd = sd(lifeExp)
  )
avg_gapdata

## # A tibble: 5 × 3
##   continent  mean    sd
##   <chr>     <dbl> <dbl>
## 1 Africa     48.9  9.15
## 2 Americas   64.7  9.35
## 3 Asia       60.1 11.9 
## 4 Europe     71.9  5.43
## 5 Oceania    74.3  3.80

avg_gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(continent, mean, fill = continent)) +
  # geom_col(alpha = 0.5) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_errorbar(aes(ymin = mean - sd, ymax = mean + sd), width = 0.25)

22.4.13 椭圆图

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = log(gdpPercap), y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_point() +
  stat_ellipse(type = "norm", level = 0.95)

22.4.14 2D 密度图

与一维的情形geom_density()类似， geom_density_2d(), geom_bin2d(), geom_hex()常用于刻画两个变量构成的二维区间的密度

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_bin2d()

gapdata %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = gdpPercap, y = lifeExp)) +
  geom_hex()

22.4.15 马赛克图

geom_tile()， geom_contour()， geom_raster()常用于3个变量

gapdata %>%
  group_by(continent, year) %>%
  summarise(mean_lifeExp = mean(lifeExp)) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = continent, fill = mean_lifeExp)) +
  geom_tile() +
  scale_fill_viridis_c()

## `summarise()` has grouped output by 'continent'. You can override using the
## `.groups` argument.

事实上可以有更好的呈现方式

gapdata %>%
  group_by(continent, year) %>%
  summarise(mean_lifeExp = mean(lifeExp)) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = continent, size = mean_lifeExp)) +
  geom_point()

## `summarise()` has grouped output by 'continent'. You can override using the
## `.groups` argument.

gapdata %>%
  group_by(continent, year) %>%
  summarise(mean_lifeExp = mean(lifeExp)) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = year, y = continent, size = mean_lifeExp)) +
  geom_point(shape = 21, color = "red", fill = "white") +
  scale_size_continuous(range = c(7, 15)) +
  geom_text(aes(label = round(mean_lifeExp, 2)), size = 3, color = "black") +
  theme(legend.position = "none")

## `summarise()` has grouped output by 'continent'. You can override using the
## `.groups` argument.

22.5 课后思考题

哪画图的代码中，哪两张图的结果是一样？为什么？

library(tidyverse)
tbl <-
  tibble(
    x = rep(c(1, 2, 3), times = 2),
    y = 1:6,
    group = rep(c("group1", "group2"), each = 3)
  )
ggplot(tbl, aes(x, y)) + geom_line()
ggplot(tbl, aes(x, y, group = group)) + geom_line()
ggplot(tbl, aes(x, y, fill = group)) + geom_line()
ggplot(tbl, aes(x, y, color = group)) + geom_line()

22.6 参考资料

• Look at Data from Data Vizualization for Social Science
• Chapter 3: Data Visualisation of R for Data Science
• Chapter 28: Graphics for communication of R for Data Science
• Graphs in R Graphics Cookbook
• ggplot2 cheat sheet
• ggplot2 documentation
• The R Graph Gallery (this is really useful)
• Top 50 ggplot2 Visualizations
• R Graphics Cookbook by Winston Chang
• ggplot extensions
• plotly for creating interactive graphs