第 58 章 广义线性模型

58.1 线性回归回顾

从线性模型的数学记号 \[ y_n = \alpha + \beta x_n + \epsilon_n \quad \text{where}\quad \epsilon_n \sim \operatorname{normal}(0,\sigma). \]

等价于 \[ y_n - (\alpha + \beta x_n) \sim \operatorname{normal}(0,\sigma), \]

又可以写为 \[ y_n \sim \operatorname{normal}(\alpha + \beta x_n, \, \sigma). \]

线性回归需要满足四个前提假设:

  1. Linearity
    • 因变量和每个自变量都是线性关系
  2. Indpendence
    • 对于所有的观测值,它们的误差项相互之间是独立的
  3. Normality
    • 误差项服从正态分布
  4. Equal-variance
    • 所有的误差项具有同样方差

这四个假设的首字母,合起来就是LINE,这样很好记

把这四个前提画在一张图中

58.2 案例

我们从一个有意思的案例开始。

在受污染的岛屿附近,金枪鱼出现次数

library(tidyverse)

df <- read_rds("./demo_data/fish.rds")
df
## # A tibble: 200 × 2
##    pollution_level number_of_fish
##              <dbl>          <int>
##  1         0                    4
##  2         0.00503              2
##  3         0.0101               1
##  4         0.0151               5
##  5         0.0201               4
##  6         0.0251               1
##  7         0.0302               2
##  8         0.0352               2
##  9         0.0402               3
## 10         0.0452               1
## # ℹ 190 more rows

我们的问题是,污染如何影响鱼类的数量?具体来说是想:建立不同位置金枪鱼的数量 与 这个位置的污染程度之间的线性关系。

58.2.1 线性模型的局限性

先看看变量之间的关系

df %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = pollution_level, y = number_of_fish)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_smooth(method = lm) +
  labs(
    title = "Number of fish counted under different pollution level",
    x = "Pollution level",
    y = "Number of fish counted"
  )

线性关系不明显,而且被解释变量甚至出现了负值。

我们再看看线性模型的结果

m0 <- lm(number_of_fish ~ pollution_level, data = df)
summary(m0)
## 
## Call:
## lm(formula = number_of_fish ~ pollution_level, data = df)
## 
## Residuals:
##     Min      1Q  Median      3Q     Max 
## -2.4986 -0.7088 -0.0237  0.5778  4.6353 
## 
## Coefficients:
##                 Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
## (Intercept)       2.9003     0.1523   19.05   <2e-16 ***
## pollution_level  -3.3306     0.2634  -12.65   <2e-16 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 
## Residual standard error: 1.081 on 198 degrees of freedom
## Multiple R-squared:  0.4468, Adjusted R-squared:  0.444 
## F-statistic: 159.9 on 1 and 198 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16

线性模型的失灵! 怎么办呢?

58.2.2 泊松分布

我们再看看被解释变量的分布:

  • 非负的整数0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
df %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = number_of_fish)) +
  geom_histogram() +
  labs(
    title = "number of fishes (Poisson distribution)"
  )

这是典型的泊松分布。

generate_pois <- function(lambda_value) {
  tibble(
    lambda = as.character(lambda_value),
    x = seq(1, 10),
    d = dpois(x = x, lambda = lambda_value)
  )
}

tb <- seq(0.1, 1.8, by = 0.2) %>% map_dfr(generate_pois)

tb %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = x, y = d, color = lambda)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_line() +
  scale_x_continuous(breaks = seq(1, 10, 1)) +
  theme_bw()

事实上,生活中很多场合都会遇到计数、二进制、yes/no、等待时间等类型的数据,比如

  1. 医院每天急诊次数
  2. 每年摩托车死亡人数
  3. 城市发生火灾的次数

他们有个共同的特征

  • 变量代表单位时间或者区域事件发生的次数,服从泊松分布。泊松分布有什么特点?

\[ y_i \sim \text{Poisson}(\lambda = \lambda_i) \]

58.2.3 正态分布换成泊松分布就行了?

回到我们目的:建立不同位置 鱼的数量 与 这个位置的污染程度之间线性关系。

在之前线性模型中讲到,对每一次观测,被解释变量服从正态分布,那么,我们用解释变量的线性组合模拟正态分布的均值\(\mu_i\),即均值\(\mu_i\)\(x_i\)变化

\[ \begin{align*} y_i \sim & \operatorname{normal}(\mu_i, \, \sigma)\\ &\operatorname{normal}(\mu_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i, \, \sigma) \end{align*} \]

我们也想如法炮制,正态分布换成泊松分布 \[ \begin{align*} y_i \sim & \text{Poisson}(\lambda_i)\\ & \text{Poisson}(\lambda_i = \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i) \end{align*} \]

但很遗憾,出现了问题

  • 泊松分布的\(\lambda_i\) 要求大于等于0,然而\(\beta_0 + \beta_1 X_i\)势必会出现负数

58.3 泊松回归模型

58.3.1 解决办法-连接函数之美

尽管不能使用直接线性模型,但可以间接使用,统计学家想到用log(\(\lambda_i\)) 代替 \(\lambda_i\),然后让解释变量的线性组合模拟log(\(\lambda_i\)),即 \[ \begin{align*} y_i \sim & \text{Poisson}(\lambda_i)\\ \color{red}\log(\lambda_i) = & \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i \end{align*} \]

现在问题迎刃而解: - log(\(\lambda_i\)) 值域范围是(\(-\infty\) to \(\infty\)),这样既保证了\(\lambda_i\) 是正值,又保证了\(\beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i\) 可能出现的负值

  • 这里的log()函数就是连接函数, 连接了\(x_i\)\(\lambda_i\)

所以泊松回归模型

\[ \begin{align*} \log(\lambda_i) = & \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i \end{align*} \]

注意到,这里没有线性回归模型中的误差项。通过极大似然估计(Maximum Likelihood Estimation)计算系数\((\beta)\)

什么叫最大相似性估计?通俗点讲,给定y的分布以及独立变量(x)的值,那么最有可能的\(\beta\)系数多是多少?

  • step 1 \(y\) 服从泊松分布

\[ \operatorname{Pr}\left(y_{i} | \lambda\right)=\frac{\lambda^{y_{i}} e^{-\lambda}}{y_{i} !}, \quad y=0,1,2, \ldots \quad ; \quad \lambda&gt;0 \]

  • step 2 回归模型 \[ E\left[y_{i} | x_{i}\right]=\lambda_{i}=\exp \left(x_{i}^{\prime} \beta\right) \]

  • step 3 \(\lambda_{i}\) 代入上式,考虑观测值彼此独立,可以将所有\(y_i\)观测值相乘,

\[ \operatorname{Pr}\left(y_{1}, \ldots, y_{N} | x_{1}, \ldots, x_{N}\right)=\prod_{i=1}^{N} \frac{e^{y_{i} x_{i}^{\prime} \beta} e^{-e^{x_{i}^{\prime}} \beta}}{y_{i} !} \]

  • step 4 然后取对数,得到(joint log-likelihood function)

\[ l\left(\beta | y_{i}, X_{i}\right)=\sum_{i=1}^{n} y_{i} X_{i}^{\prime} \beta-\exp X_{i}^{\prime} \beta-\log y_{i} ! \]

  • step 5 求偏导 \[ \frac{\partial l}{\partial \beta}=\sum_{i=1}^{n}\left(y_{i}-\exp X_{i}^{\prime} \beta\right) X_{i} \]

  • step 6 令等式等于0,通过样本值,可以求出系数。

58.3.2 代码实现

使用glm()函数:

glm(y ~ 1 + x, family = familytype(link = linkfunction), data = )
  • formula: 被解释变量 ~ 解释变量
  • family : 误差分布(和连接函数),family = poisson(link="log")
  • data : 数据框
m <- glm(number_of_fish ~ pollution_level,
  family = poisson(link = "log"),
  data = df
)
m
## 
## Call:  glm(formula = number_of_fish ~ pollution_level, family = poisson(link = "log"), 
##     data = df)
## 
## Coefficients:
##     (Intercept)  pollution_level  
##           1.387           -3.108  
## 
## Degrees of Freedom: 199 Total (i.e. Null);  198 Residual
## Null Deviance:       363 
## Residual Deviance: 201.2     AIC: 492.2
## 
## Call:
## glm(formula = number_of_fish ~ pollution_level, family = poisson(link = "log"), 
##     data = df)
## 
## Coefficients:
##                 Estimate Std. Error z value Pr(>|z|)    
## (Intercept)       1.3872     0.0977   14.20   <2e-16 ***
## pollution_level  -3.1077     0.2716  -11.44   <2e-16 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 
## (Dispersion parameter for poisson family taken to be 1)
## 
##     Null deviance: 363.03  on 199  degrees of freedom
## Residual deviance: 201.16  on 198  degrees of freedom
## AIC: 492.22
## 
## Number of Fisher Scoring iterations: 5
##                     2.5 %    97.5 %
## (Intercept)      1.191825  1.574966
## pollution_level -3.651899 -2.586402
broom::tidy(m)
## # A tibble: 2 × 5
##   term            estimate std.error statistic  p.value
##   <chr>              <dbl>     <dbl>     <dbl>    <dbl>
## 1 (Intercept)         1.39    0.0977      14.2 9.33e-46
## 2 pollution_level    -3.11    0.272      -11.4 2.52e-30

58.4 模型解释

我们建立的模型是 \[ \begin{align*} y_i \sim & \text{Poisson}(\lambda_i)\\ \log(\lambda_i) = & \beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i \end{align*} \]

我个人比较喜欢这样写 \[ \begin{align*} y_i \sim & \;\text{Poisson}(\lambda_i = \exp(\beta_0 + \beta_1 x_i)) \end{align*} \]

58.4.1 系数

\[ \begin{align*} \frac{\lambda_1}{\lambda_0} & = \frac{\exp(\beta_1 + \beta_1*x_1)}{\exp(\beta_0 + \beta_1*x_0)} \\ & = \exp(\beta_1(x_1 - x_0)) \end{align*} \]

计算当\(x_i\)增加一个单位时,事件平均发生次数将会是原来的\(\exp(\beta_1)\)倍。具体系数为:

coef(m)
##     (Intercept) pollution_level 
##        1.387188       -3.107740
exp(coef(m)[2])
## pollution_level 
##      0.04470185
exp(coef(m))
##     (Intercept) pollution_level 
##      4.00357677      0.04470185
  • 污染系数为0, 4.0035768
  • 污染系数从0变到0.5, 引起 (1/exp(-3.1077*0.5) = 4.7)倍数的鱼数量下降.
  • 污染系数从0变到1, 引起 22.3704397 倍数的鱼数量下降.

58.4.2 边际效应(Marginal effects)

即在其他条件不变的情况下,\(x_i\)增加一个单位,事件的平均发生次数会增加 \(100\beta_1 \%\): 类似求偏导\(\frac{\partial{\lambda}}{\partial{x}}\)

margins::margins(m, type = "link")
##  pollution_level
##           -3.108

模型是非线性的,所以我们常用更直观的方式评估边际效应,即,自变量直接对因变量的贡献,可以令type = "response",类似求偏导\(\frac{\partial{y}}{\partial{x}}\)

margins::marginal_effects(m, type = "response", se = TRUE) %>%
  as.data.frame() %>%
  dplyr::mutate(pollution_level = df$pollution_level) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = pollution_level, y = dydx_pollution_level)) +
  geom_point()

纵坐标是事件的平均发生次数(增加)下降的比例,可以看到随着x变大,下降趋缓。更多边际效应的内容,可参考这里

58.4.3 拟合

##        1        2        3        4        5        6 
## 4.003577 3.941539 3.880463 3.820334 3.761136 3.702855

实质上就是\(exp(\beta_0 + \beta_1 * pollution_level)\)

intercept <- coef(m)[1]
beta <- coef(m)[2]

df %>%
  dplyr::mutate(theory_pred = fitted(m)) %>%
  dplyr::mutate(
    myguess_pred = exp(intercept + beta * pollution_level)
  )
## # A tibble: 200 × 4
##    pollution_level number_of_fish theory_pred myguess_pred
##              <dbl>          <int>       <dbl>        <dbl>
##  1         0                    4        4.00         4.00
##  2         0.00503              2        3.94         3.94
##  3         0.0101               1        3.88         3.88
##  4         0.0151               5        3.82         3.82
##  5         0.0201               4        3.76         3.76
##  6         0.0251               1        3.70         3.70
##  7         0.0302               2        3.65         3.65
##  8         0.0352               2        3.59         3.59
##  9         0.0402               3        3.53         3.53
## 10         0.0452               1        3.48         3.48
## # ℹ 190 more rows
df %>%
  dplyr::mutate(theory_pred = fitted(m)) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = pollution_level, y = theory_pred)) +
  geom_point()
pred <- predict(m, type = "response", se = TRUE) %>% as.data.frame()
pred %>% 
  head()
##        fit    se.fit residual.scale
## 1 4.003577 0.3911426              1
## 2 3.941539 0.3810162              1
## 3 3.880463 0.3711420              1
## 4 3.820334 0.3615154              1
## 5 3.761136 0.3521314              1
## 6 3.702855 0.3429855              1
df_pred <- df %>%
  dplyr::mutate(
    fit = pred$fit,
    se_fit = pred$se.fit
  )
df_pred
## # A tibble: 200 × 4
##    pollution_level number_of_fish   fit se_fit
##              <dbl>          <int> <dbl>  <dbl>
##  1         0                    4  4.00  0.391
##  2         0.00503              2  3.94  0.381
##  3         0.0101               1  3.88  0.371
##  4         0.0151               5  3.82  0.362
##  5         0.0201               4  3.76  0.352
##  6         0.0251               1  3.70  0.343
##  7         0.0302               2  3.65  0.334
##  8         0.0352               2  3.59  0.325
##  9         0.0402               3  3.53  0.317
## 10         0.0452               1  3.48  0.309
## # ℹ 190 more rows
real_df <-
  tibble(
    x = seq(0, 1, length.out = 100),
    y = 4 * exp(-3.2 * x)
  )

df_pred %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = pollution_level, y = number_of_fish)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_pointrange(aes(
    y = fit,
    ymax = fit + se_fit,
    ymin = fit - se_fit
  ), color = "red") +
  # geom_point(aes(y = fit + se_fit), color = "red") +
  # geom_point(aes(y = fit - se_fit), color = "red") +
  geom_line(data = real_df, aes(x = x, y = y), color = "black") +
  labs(
    title = "Number of fish counted under different pollution level",
    x = "Pollution level",
    y = "Number of fish counted"
  )

58.4.4 模型评估

knitr::include_graphics(path = "images/model_evaluation.png")
  • 过度离散,负二项式分布模型
  • 零膨胀
margins::margins(m)

ggeffects::ggpredict(m)

ggeffects::ggpredict(m, terms = c("pollution_level"))

performance::model_performance(m)

performance::check_model(m)

performance::check_overdispersion(m)

performance::check_zeroinflation(m)

58.5 思考

58.5.1 这两者为什么是相等的?

d <- tibble(
  x = 1:100,
  y = 4 + 2 * x + rnorm(100)
)

lm(y ~ x, data = d)
## 
## Call:
## lm(formula = y ~ x, data = d)
## 
## Coefficients:
## (Intercept)            x  
##       4.118        1.996
glm(y ~ x,
  family = gaussian(link = "identity"),
  data = d
)
## 
## Call:  glm(formula = y ~ x, family = gaussian(link = "identity"), data = d)
## 
## Coefficients:
## (Intercept)            x  
##       4.118        1.996  
## 
## Degrees of Freedom: 99 Total (i.e. Null);  98 Residual
## Null Deviance:       332000 
## Residual Deviance: 88.72     AIC: 277.8

lmglm的一种特殊情形。

58.5.3 更多分布

x <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
y <- c(1, 2, 4, 2, 6)

regNId <- glm(y ~ x, family = gaussian(link = "identity"))
regNlog <- glm(y ~ x, family = gaussian(link = "log"))
regPId <- glm(y ~ x, family = poisson(link = "identity"))
regPlog <- glm(y ~ x, family = poisson(link = "log"))
regGId <- glm(y ~ x, family = Gamma(link = "identity"))
regGlog <- glm(y ~ x, family = Gamma(link = "log"))
regIGId <- glm(y ~ x, family = inverse.gaussian(link = "identity"))
regIGlog <- glm(y ~ x, family = inverse.gaussian(link = "log"))
dx <- tibble(
  x = c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5),
  y = c(1, 2, 4, 2, 6)
)

dx %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = x, y = y)) +
  geom_point()
regNId <- glm(y ~ x, family = gaussian(link = "identity"), data = dx)
regNId

dx %>%
  mutate(pred = predict(regNId, type = "response")) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = x, y = y)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred, group = 1))
regPlog <- glm(y ~ x, family = poisson(link = "log"), data = dx)
regPlog

dx %>%
  mutate(pred = predict(regPlog, type = "response")) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = x, y = y)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred, group = 1))
regGId <- glm(y ~ x, family = Gamma(link = "identity"), data = dx)
regGId

dx %>%
  mutate(pred = predict(regGId, type = "response")) %>%
  ggplot(aes(x = x, y = y)) +
  geom_point() +
  geom_line(aes(y = pred, group = 1))

58.5.4 更复杂的模型

以后再说

glm(number_of_fish ~ 1 + (1 | pollution_level),
  family = poisson(link = "log"),
  data = df
)

58.6 小结

59 章接着讲广义线性模型中的logistic回归模型。