Physical Processes in Ecosystems
Foreward
1
Calculus-Integration
1.1
Preface
1.2
Introduction
1.3
Fundamentals
1.4
The Definite Integral
1.4.1
Area Under the Curve
1.4.2
Improper Integrals
1.5
Methods Of Integration
1.5.1
Substitution
1.5.2
Integration by Parts
1.5.3
Partial Fractions
1.6
Applications Of Definite Integrals
1.6.1
Accumulation of Changes in the Function
1.6.2
Average Change
1.6.3
Distance
1.6.4
Volumes
1.6.5
Surface Area of Revolution
1.6.6
Volume of Revolution
1.6.7
General Surface Areas
1.6.8
Error Estimation
1.7
Differential Equations
1.7.1
Separation of Variables
1.7.2
Residual Norm
1.8
References and Recommended Texts
1.9
Problem Set
1.10
Answers to the Problem Set
1.11
Additional Problems
1.12
Solution to the Additional Problems
2
Calculus-Differentiation
2.1
Preface
2.2
Introduction
2.3
Functions of One Variable
2.3.1
Rates of Change
2.3.2
Composite Functions
2.3.3
Higher Derivatives
2.3.4
Critical Points
2.4
Functions of Several Variable
2.4.1
Using Flow Diagrams
2.4.2
Partial Derivatives
2.4.3
Critical Points in Three Dimensions
2.5
Bibliography
2.6
Problem Set
2.7
Answers to the Problem Set
2.8
Additional Problems
2.9
Answers to the Additional Problems
3
Dimensional Methods
3.1
Preface
3.2
Introduction
3.3
SI Units
3.3.1
Fundamental Mechanical Units
3.3.2
Temperature Scales
3.3.3
Supplementary Mechanical Units
3.3.4
Angular Units
3.3.5
Derived Units
3.3.6
Auxiliary Prefixs of the Metric System
3.4
Dimentional Homogeneity
3.4.1
The Dimentional Constraints on Definitional and Empirical Equations
3.4.2
Intensive and Extensive Properties
3.4.3
Conversion Factors
3.5
Problem Set
3.6
Answers and Solutions
3.7
References
4
Foundations of Physical Theory
4.1
Preface
4.2
The Atomic Theory
4.3
Basic Force Laws
4.3.1
Inertia
4.4
Gravitational Force
4.4.1
Electromagnetic Force
4.4.2
Other Force “Laws”
4.5
Energy
4.5.1
Work and Potential Energy
4.5.2
Kinetic Energy
4.5.3
Conservation of Energy
4.5.4
Gravitational and Electrostatic Potential Energy
4.6
Problem Set
4.7
Answers to the Problem Set
4.8
Bibliography
5
Thermodynamics Intro
5.1
Preface
5.2
Energy Exchange of Organisms
5.3
Thermodynamics
5.3.1
Scope of Thermodynamics
5.3.2
Systems Concepts
5.3.3
Temperature
5.4
First Law of Thermodynamics
5.4.1
Internal Energy
5.4.2
Heat and Heat Transfer Processes
5.4.3
Work
5.5
Problem Set
5.6
Answers to the Problem Set
5.7
Literature Cited
6
Thermodynamic Applications
6.1
Preface
6.2
Introduction
6.3
Applications of the First Law
6.3.1
Work
6.3.2
Examples of Heat Energy Exchange
6.3.3
The First Law Generalized to Include Mass Flow
6.4
Problem Set
6.5
Answers to the Problem Set
6.6
Literature Cited
6.7
Bibliography
6.7.1
General Texts and Papers on Energy Budgets
6.7.2
Meteorology
6.7.3
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
7
Heat Transfer
7.1
Preface
7.2
Introduction
7.3
Heat Transfer Processes
7.3.1
Radiation
7.3.2
Conduction
7.3.3
Convection
7.3.4
Evaporation
7.4
Thermal Properties of Materials
7.5
Examples of Heat Energy Budget
7.5.1
Heat Flow in Soil
7.5.2
A Leaf
7.5.3
A Lizard
7.6
Problem Set
7.7
Answers to the Problem Set
7.8
Bibliography
8
Light and Sound
8.1
Preface
8.2
Introduction
8.3
Black Body Radiation
8.3.1
Wein’s Law of Shift
8.3.2
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
8.3.3
The solar constant
8.4
Resolution
8.5
The Doppler Effect
8.6
Summary
8.7
Problem Set
8.8
Answers to the Problem Set
8.9
Literature Cited
9
The Climate Space Concept
9.1
Preface
9.2
Introduction
9.3
The Thermal Environment: Basis for the Climate Space
9.3.1
Absorbed radiation
9.3.2
Environmental Constraints
9.4
Physiological Constraints of the Organism
9.4.1
Bounding Air Temperature/Radiation
9.4.2
Plotting Climate Space Boundaries
9.4.3
Desert Iguana Climate Space
9.4.4
Zebra Finch Climate Space
9.4.5
The Lizard
9.4.6
The Cardinal
9.4.7
Monteith’s Idea
9.5
Extensions of the Climate Space Idea
9.6
Literature Cited
9.7
Problem Set
9.8
Answers to the Problem Set
9.9
Appendix I
9.9.1
Appendix II
10
Operative Temperature
10.1
Preface
10.2
Introduction
10.3
Animal Thermoregulation
10.3.1
The Physical Environment
10.3.2
Thermoregulation and the Ecogeographical Rules
10.3.3
Other Ecological Considerations
10.4
The Operative Environmental Temperature
10.4.1
Mathematical Development of the Operative Environmental Temperature
10.4.2
Laboratory and Field Applicatons of the Operative Environmental Temperatures
10.4.3
Field Applications
10.5
Summary
10.6
Literature Cited
10.7
Problem Set
10.8
Answers to the Problem Set
11
Transpiration and Leaf Temperature
11.1
Preface
11.2
Introduction
11.3
Leaf Energy Budget
11.3.1
Resistance to Water Loss
11.3.2
Transpiration Rate
11.4
Complete Energy Budget
11.4.1
Values of Leaf Parameters
11.4.2
Values of the Environmental Variables
11.5
Influence of Energy Components on Leaf Temperature
11.6
More Detailed Energy Budget
11.7
Analysis of General Model
11.7.1
Calculations of Leaf Temperatures and Transpiration
11.7.2
Sample Plots of Transpiration and Leaf Temperature
11.8
Conclusion
11.9
Literature Cited
11.10
Problem Set
11.11
Answers to the Problem Set
12
Heat Balance of a Sheep
12.1
Preface
12.2
Introduction
12.3
Energy Balance
12.4
Heat Transfer by Conduction Within the Animal
12.5
Heat Loss by Convection
12.6
Heat Loss by Radiation
12.7
Heat Gained by Absorption of Radiation
12.7.1
Direct Solar Radiation
12.7.2
Sky Radiation
12.7.3
Reflected Short-Wave Radiation
12.7.4
Long-Wave Radiation
12.8
Metabolic Heat
12.9
An Energy Balance Calculation
12.10
References
12.11
Problem Set
12.12
Answers to the Problem Set
13
Soil Heat Flow
13.1
Preface
13.2
Introduction
13.3
Governing Factors in Soil Heat Flow
13.4
Formal Development
13.4.1
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction
13.4.2
Heat Storage and Energy Conservation
13.4.3
Heat Conduction (Diffusion) Equation
13.5
Use of the Heat Conduction Equation
13.5.1
Boundary Conditions
13.5.2
Properties of the Harmonic Solution
13.5.3
Comparison of Theory with Experiment
13.5.4
Application of Results
13.6
Literature Cited
13.7
Problem Set
13.8
Answers to the Problem Set
14
Turbulence and Fluid Flow
14.1
Preface
14.2
Introduction
14.3
Description of Turbulence
14.3.1
Variability
14.3.2
Diffusivity
14.4
Origins of Turbulence
14.4.1
Viscosity and Laminar Shear Flows
14.4.2
Turbulent Shear Flow
14.5
Theories of Turbulence
14.5.1
Reynolds Averaging
14.5.2
K Theory
14.5.3
Boundary Layers and Non-dimensional Numbers: A Bulk Approach
14.6
Recapitulation
14.7
Literature Cited
14.8
Problem Set
14.9
Answers to the Problem Set
15
Appendix 1. Working with microclim
15.1
Introduction
15.2
Initial setup
15.3
Overview of the microclimate data
15.4
Solar Radiation
15.5
Zenith Angle
15.6
Wind Speed
15.7
Air Temperature
15.8
Sky Temperature
15.9
Relative Humidity
15.10
Soil Temperature
15.11
Literature Cited
15.12
Problem Set
16
Appendix 2. Mapping climate space
16.1
Introduction
16.2
Initial setup
16.3
Getting the climate space available in Australia
16.4
Mapping the climate space of the Desert Iguana in North America
16.5
Mapping the cold limits of the Desert Iguana
16.6
Mapping the heat limit of the Desert Iguana
16.7
Literature Cited
17
List of Symbols
Published with bookdown
Physical Processes in Ecosystems
Chapter 14
Turbulence and Fluid Flow
Turbulence and Fluid Flow: Perspectives
author: Simpson, James P.