Chapter 19: covariance matrix

19.1 vector direct product

• scalar = rank-0 tensor
• vector = rank-1 tensor
• matrix = rank-2 tensor
• vector direct product = rank-1 tensor times rank-1 tensor equals rank-2 tensor: increasing rank
• vector inner product = rank-1 tensor times rank-1 tensor equals rank-0 tensor: decreasing rank

scalar = rank-0 tensor

vector = rank-1 tensor

matrix = rank-2 tensor

19.1.1 vector direct product: increasing rank

vector direct product = rank-1 tensor times rank-1 tensor equals rank-2 tensor: increasing rank

$$\begin{aligned} U\otimes V= & UV^{\intercal}=U_{i}V_{j}\\ =\begin{pmatrix}U_{1}\\ U_{2}\\ U_{3} \end{pmatrix}\otimes\begin{pmatrix}V_{1}\\ V_{2}\\ V_{3} \end{pmatrix}= & \begin{pmatrix}U_{1}\\ U_{2}\\ U_{3} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}V_{1} & V_{2} & V_{3}\end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix}U_{1}V_{1} & U_{1}V_{2} & U_{1}V_{3}\\ U_{\text{2}}V_{1} & U_{2}V_{2} & U_{2}V_{3}\\ U_{3}V_{1} & U_{3}V_{2} & U_{3}V_{3} \end{pmatrix}\\ = & \begin{pmatrix}U_{1}V^{\intercal}\\ U_{2}V^{\intercal}\\ U_{3}V^{\intercal} \end{pmatrix}=\begin{pmatrix}UV_{1} & UV_{2} & UV_{3}\end{pmatrix} \end{aligned}$$

19.1.2 vector inner product: decreasing rank

vector inner product = rank-1 tensor times rank-1 tensor equals rank-0 tensor: decreasing rank

$$\begin{aligned} U\cdot V= & V^{\intercal}U=V_{i}U_{i}\\ =\begin{pmatrix}U_{1}\\ U_{2}\\ U_{3} \end{pmatrix}\cdot\begin{pmatrix}V_{1}\\ V_{2}\\ V_{3} \end{pmatrix}= & \begin{pmatrix}V_{1} & V_{2} & V_{3}\end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}U_{1}\\ U_{2}\\ U_{3} \end{pmatrix}=V_{1}U_{1}+V_{2}U_{2}+V_{3}U_{3} \end{aligned}$$

19.1.3 tensor direct product: increasing rank

$$\begin{eqnarray} S\otimes T & = & S_{ik}T_{jl}\\ \left(i,j\right),\left(k,l\right) & \in & \left\{ \left(1,1\right),\left(1,2\right),\left(2,1\right),\left(2,2\right)\right\} \\ \begin{pmatrix}S_{11} & S_{12}\\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{pmatrix}\otimes\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix} & = & \begin{pmatrix}S_{11}T_{11} & S_{11}T_{12} & S_{12}T_{11} & S_{12}T_{12}\\ S_{11}T_{21} & S_{11}T_{22} & S_{12}T_{21} & S_{12}T_{22}\\ S_{21}T_{11} & S_{21}T_{12} & S_{22}T_{11} & S_{22}T_{12}\\ S_{21}T_{21} & S_{21}T_{22} & S_{22}T_{21} & S_{22}T_{22} \end{pmatrix}\\ \begin{pmatrix}S_{11} & S_{12}\\ S_{21} & S_{22} \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix} & = & \begin{pmatrix}S_{11}T & S_{12}T\\ S_{21}T & S_{22}T \end{pmatrix}\\ & = & \begin{pmatrix}S_{11}\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix} & S_{12}\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix}\\ S_{21}\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix} & S_{22}\begin{pmatrix}T_{11} & T_{12}\\ T_{21} & T_{22} \end{pmatrix} \end{pmatrix} \end{eqnarray}$$

19.2 covariance matrix and its properties

⁸

$$\begin{aligned} \mathrm{C}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]=\mathrm{Cov}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]=\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]= & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\right]\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}-\boldsymbol{X}\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}+\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left[\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\right]+\mathrm{E}\left[\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}+\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}+\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal} \end{aligned}$$

$$\begin{aligned} \boldsymbol{X}=\left[X\right]_{1\times1}=X\Rightarrow C\left(X\right)=\mathrm{C}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]= & \mathrm{E}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\boldsymbol{X}^{\intercal}\right]-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)^{\intercal}\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[XX\right]-\mathrm{E}\left(X\right)\mathrm{E}\left(X\right)\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left(X^{2}\right)-\left[\mathrm{E}\left(X\right)\right]^{2}=\mathrm{V}\left(X\right) \end{aligned}$$

19.2.1 $\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right]=\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]$

$$\begin{aligned} \mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right]= & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\left(\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right)-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right)\right]\left[\left(\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right)-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ \overset{\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right)=\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)+\boldsymbol{b}}{=} & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)-\boldsymbol{b}\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)-\boldsymbol{b}\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]=\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right] \end{aligned}$$

19.2.2 $\mathrm{V}\left[A\boldsymbol{X}\right]=A\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]A^{\intercal}$

$$\begin{aligned} \mathrm{V}\left[A\boldsymbol{X}\right]= & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[\left(A\boldsymbol{X}\right)-\mathrm{E}\left(A\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\left(A\boldsymbol{X}\right)-\mathrm{E}\left(A\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ \overset{\mathrm{E}\left(A\boldsymbol{X}\right)=A\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)}{=} & \mathrm{E}\left[\left[A\boldsymbol{X}-A\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[A\boldsymbol{X}-A\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[A\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[A\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\right]^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & \mathrm{E}\left[A\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}A^{\intercal}\right]\\ = & A\mathrm{E}\left[\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]\left[\boldsymbol{X}-\mathrm{E}\left(\boldsymbol{X}\right)\right]^{\intercal}\right]A^{\intercal}=A\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]A^{\intercal} \end{aligned}$$

19.2.3 $\mathrm{V}\left[A\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right]=A\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]A^{\intercal}$

$$\mathrm{V}\left[A\boldsymbol{X}+\boldsymbol{b}\right]=\mathrm{V}\left[A\boldsymbol{X}\right]=A\mathrm{V}\left[\boldsymbol{X}\right]A^{\intercal}$$

references

8.

ccjou. 共變異數矩陣的性質. (2014).