39 Writing research

So far, you have learnt the about process of research: asking a RQ, designing a study, collecting data, describing and summarising the data, and analysing the data (confidence intervals; hypothesis tests). In this chapter, you will learn to:

• write and report research effectively and clearly.
• appropriately structure your research writing.

RQ

39.1 Introduction

Research needs to be effectively communicated and shared so the results can be used by others. The purpose of writing about research is to effectively and clearly communicate.

Research may be shared using face-to-face or online presentations (Sect. 39.3) or written documents (Sect. 39.4). The style and expectations vary widely between these two formats, and also between disciplines (even journals in the same discipline can have different expectations). Hence, in this chapter, general comments are made about writing about research, rather than giving specific requirements. Formal guidelines for writing and reporting research exist, for both experimental studies (Hopewell et al. 2022) and observational studies (Von Elm et al. 2007), though we will not discuss these specifically.

39.2 General advice

The purpose of writing about research is to effectively and clearly communicate the research. In the scientific disciplines, writing carefully and precisely is important: using the correct words appropriately is crucial. Think carefully about every word you use to ensure it conveys the correct and intended meaning. With this in mind, all scientific writing:

• should use inclusive language (e.g., 'fire-fighter', not 'fireman').
• should avoid ambiguity.
• should use terminology consistently.
• should use simple, clear but technically-correct language.
• should present the facts in an unbiased manner.
• should be clear, concise and complete.
• should avoid unnecessary repetition.

 

• should not contain unnecessary words and phrases.
• should not be haphazard, jumbled or makes leaps of logic.
• should not promote personal opinions (such as describing results as 'exciting', and so on).
• should not reach conclusions unsupported by the given evidence.
• should not overstate what has been learnt from the study.

Because academic writing avoids personal opinions, writing in first person ('I applied the fertiliser') is usually (but not always) preferred over writing in third person ('the fertiliser was applied').

Example 39.1 (Overstating conclusions) A student project found that the proportion of provisional drivers (those yet to get a full open licence) was higher in free university car parks, compared to paid university car parks. They concluded that provisional drivers seek to 'save money by parking in free carparks'.

This may be true, but the evidence from their observational study cannot demonstrate this. For example, the proportion may be higher in the free car parks as those car parks may be closer to their classrooms. The study simply shows evidence of a difference in proportions, but does not study why. To learn the reason, provisional drivers could be surveyed.

Ensure correct spelling, grammar, punctuation and formatting, and use (but do not rely upon) a spell checker and grammar checker. Specifically:

• Ensure that do not confuse using commonly-confused words (there/their; your/you're; affect/effect; chose/choose; etc.). Use a dictionary!
• Capitalise correctly
• Use apostrophes correctly. For example, "it's" is only ever an abbreviation for "it is"; be careful with plurals.
• Take care using comparative terms. For example, stating that 'there is evidence that this treatment is better' must be clarified; better than what, and in what sense (cost? ease of use? patient outcomes?).
• Ensure verbs and subjects agree. For example, 'a group was' rather than 'a group were'; 'the sample was' rather than 'the sample were'. In many cases, 'data' is used as a plural ('datum' is the singular; 'dataset' is also singular); that is, we write 'the data were right skewed' rather than 'the data was right skewed', but the latter use is becoming more common.

After completing a first draft, revise your document carefully as many times as necessary. Writing well is difficult; editing can be painful. Having someone else read and comment on your writing can be useful.

William Howard Taft (27th president of the United States) is claimed to have said (emphasis added):

Don't write so that you can be understood; write so that you can't be misunderstood.

Be unambiguous: say what you mean, and mean what you say.

Example 39.2 (Write what you mean) A student project at my university asked:

Are dark-coloured car owners more likely to park undercover?

They actually meant:

Are drivers of dark-coloured cars more likely to park undercover?

Don't just be understood; avoid being misunderstood!

A series of experimental studies (Oppenheimer 2006) concluded that students often believe that the use of fancy words makes them appear smarter. However, one conclusion of the research was that using 'fancy' language does not achieve this: 'needless complexity leads to negative evaluations...' (Oppenheimer (2006), p. 151; emphasis added). Always use the best, most appropriate and technically-correct word. One recommendation from the study is to (p. 153):

... write clearly and simply if you can, and you'll be more likely to be thought of as intelligent.

Different disciplines and journals have their own styles; read articles from your discipline or target journal to see how to write in the required style.

39.3 Preparing presentations

Presentations are often used to share progress reports of research, or give an overview of completed research. They are often used at conferences, workshops, and progress meetings. Presentations are often given to peers, stakeholders, funding bodies, small groups of other researchers, or work teams. Presentations should be adapted to suit the time allocated and the target audience: a conference presentation to a group of your research peers should be different than a presentation to a progress meeting.

Presentations are mostly a verbal (speaking) and visual (preparing slides) medium.

As an verbal medium, speak slowly, clearly, loudly, and with expression. Use eye contact, and practice! Ensure you keep to your allocated time. Ensure technical or unusual words are pronounced correctly; the correct pronunciation of many unfamiliar terms have been given in this book.

As a visual medium, presentations usually omit technical details and give the audience an overview of the major points; sharing technical details in a presentation is unlikely to produce an engaging presentation. Presentations tend to focus on the why and the what of the research, and a brief overview of how. They may encourage audience members to learn more by reading your written documents (Sect. 39.4).

Presentations also tend to use graphs, images, short sentences, and minimal text. Presentation software encourages the use of fancy fonts, transitions and animations, but these are usually more distracting than informative; avoid. Ensure your fonts are colours are readable from a distance (especially for tables and graphs).

Using bullet points on slides, while common, is not necessary; short sentences are fine. Slides should not contain information that you simply read to the audience; a good presenter adds important details around the structure provided by information on the slides. The slides guide, but do not have to tell, your story of your research.

39.4 Writing documents

Written documents are more likely to be formally written and prepared than presentations, and generally to contain details omitted in presentations. Unlike presentations, written documents usually provide details of how the research was conducted. Written documents may be journal articles, progress reports, reports to stakeholders, or funding applications. In what follows, all these types of written documents are referred to as 'articles' for brevity.

Journal articles, and sometimes other written documents too, should contain sufficient details so that other professionals can repeat the study (Chap. 9.1).

39.4.1 Article titles

Titles are important: poor titles can discourage a reader from reading an article. A title should clearly describe the main purpose of the article. Sometimes this is achieved by pose questions in the title ('Do warning lights and sirens reduce ambulance response times?'; Brown et al. (2000)) or providing answers in the title ('No harm from five year ingestion of oats in coeliac disease'; Janatuinen et al. (2002)).

Try to avoid overly-specific technical language and uncommon abbreviations in the title.

39.4.2 Authors

Ensure that everyone who has made an intellectual contribution is listed as an author. This is ethical practice (Sect. 5), and includes (see Brand et al. (2015)) those who helped with:

• conceptualisation.
• methodology.
• software.
• data analysis.
• investigation.
• resourcing.
• data curation.

 

• creating images or taking photographs.
• writing, including writing drafts, reviewing and editing.
• visualization.
• supervision.
• project administration.
• funding acquisition.

39.4.3 Abstract

The Abstract is a short section at the start of an article summarising the whole paper, including the results; it is not an introduction! The Abstract is often the most important part of any article, as it is the only part that many people will read. Some (but not all) journals require a structured abstract, where the Abstract contains specific headings.

The Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy (STARD) statement (Cohen et al. 2017) list essential items for Abstracts (slightly adapted), whether they are structured or not:

• Background and Objectives: List the study objectives (or the RQ, or the Aims, as necessary).
• Methods: Describe:
  • the process of data collection.
  • the type of study.
  • the inclusion and exclusion criteria for individuals.
  • the settings in which the data were collected.
  • the sampling method (e.g., systematic or convenience sample).
  • the tools or methods used to collect the data.
• Results: Provide:
  • the number of individuals in all groups included in the analysis.
  • estimates of precision of estimates (e.g., confidence intervals).
  • results of analysis (e.g., hypothesis tests).
• Discussion: Provide:
  • a general interpretation of the results.
  • implications for practice.
  • limitations of the study.

All of these components are studied in this book.

Example 39.3 (Structured abstract) Singh and Prasad (2016) examined the long-term effects of mortality after lower-limb amputation. Here is the structured Abstract, slightly edited for brevity, which contains most of the required elements (p. 545):

Background: Mortality after amputation is known to be extremely high and is associated with a number of patient features. We wished to calculate this mortality after first-time lower-limb amputation and investigate whether any population or treatment factors are associated with worse mortality.

Objective: To follow up individuals after lower limb amputation and ascertain the mortality rate as well as population or treatment features associated with mortality.

Study design: A prospective cohort study [i.e., a forward direction study]

Methods: Prospective lower-limb amputations over 1 year (\(N = 105\)) at a Regional Rehabilitation Centre were followed up for \(3\) years.

Results: After \(3\) years, \(35\) individuals in the cohort had died, representing a mortality of \(33\)%. On initial univariate analysis, those who died were more likely to have diabetes mellitus (\(\chi^2 = 7.16\), \(\text{df} = 1\), \(p = 0.007\)) [...] Diabetes (odds ratio\({} = 3.04\), confidence interval \({} = 1.25\)--\(7.40\), \(p = 0.014\)) [was an] independent predictor of mortality....

Conclusion: Mortality after amputation is extremely high and is increased in individuals with diabetes...

39.4.4 Introduction

The purpose of the Introduction is to:

• gain the interest of readers, and encourage them to read more of the article.
• establish the context and background.
• define the language, acronyms and definitions used in the study.
• introduce the theoretical groundwork of the subject.
• state the purpose of the paper: why it was written, and what the authors hope to learn.

The Introduction should also show how the research fills a gap in existing knowledge, by using a literature review; sometimes a literature review is a separate section.

39.4.5 Methods

The Methods section (sometimes called Materials and Methods or similar) explains how the data were obtained; for example:

• how the sample was identified and located.
• how the data were collected from the individuals (the data collection protocol).
• how external and internal validity was maximised, and confounding managed;
• how the data were analysed, including the software (and version number) used, and the statistical methods used.
• what specialized equipment was used (don't list pencils, rulers, paper, etc.).

39.4.6 Results

The Results summarise the conclusions from the analysis, especially regarding the initial RQ. The Results section:

• shows all the relevant findings from the research.
• presents a summary of the data: the number of observations, the number of missing values, and a verbal description of important variables.
• presents tabular, numerical and/or graphical summaries of the data and relationships of importance.
• gives a brief verbal interpretation of these summaries.
• gives the results from any hypothesis tests and confidence intervals.
• identifies trends, consistencies, anomalies, etc.
• does not provide interpretations or explanations of the results (that is the purpose of the Discussion).

Unless the dataset is small, the data itself is usually not given (though may appear in an Appendix or online).

Cutting-and-pasting software output into reports is rarely acceptable, except for carefully-prepared graphs (Chap. 17; Sect. 39.5.1).

39.4.7 Discussion

Sometimes, articles have separate Conclusion and Discussion sections; sometimes they are combined. No new information should be presented in this section. This section:

• summarises the results.
• gives a short evaluation of the results.
• answers the stated RQ.
• discusses limitations (Chap. 8), strengths, weaknesses, problems, challenges.
• tries to anticipate and respond to potential questions about the research.

Readers should reach the conclusions based on the evidence presented.

39.4.8 Referencing and plagiarism

Writing about research almost always refers to, and builds on, other people's work to formulate the research question, establish ideas and explain the background of the research. However, plagiarism (using other people's words and ideas without acknowledgement) should be avoided. All sources used when writing research should be acknowledged. Plagiarism is a serious offence: it is theft of intellectual property. Do not plagiarise; use quotes if necessary and cite work (sparingly). Plagiarism applies to words, text, images, photographs, ideas, etc.

Example 39.4 (Plagiarism) Shamim (2014) published an article to discourage plagiarism. Later, the article was retracted because parts of the article were plagiarised.

The References (or Bibliography) section gives the full citations of any work referenced, in the required format (such as APA, Harvard, etc.). This is ethical practice. Most journals have strict guidelines for how references should be listed and formatted.

39.4.9 Optional sections

Sometimes an Acknowledgements section is used to thank and acknowledge other contributions, such as people who legitimately contributed to the manuscript, and research funding bodies. Avoid saying 'The authors would like to thank...'; instead, directly thank them: 'We thank...'. Reviewers of the article (who are almost always volunteers) are usually thanked also.

Often an Appendix is included, which contains important material that would otherwise break the flow of the article's narrative. The Appendix may include large tables, data, images, discussions of technical details, mathematical development, and so on. Sometimes, this material is placed online.

39.4.10 Article structure

Articles are usually expected to have a more formal structure than presentations, as noted above. Sometimes the acronym AIMRaD or IMRaD is used to remember these sections:

• Abstract,
• Introduction,
• Methods,
• Results, and
• Discussion (or Summary, or Conclusions).

These components capture the six-step research process in this book (Fig. 39.1).

FIGURE 39.1: The connection between the paper and the steps we have studied. The Abstract briefly covers all aspects of the study, and the Discussion explains what has been learnt through the process.

39.5 Specific advice

39.5.1 Constructing tables, graphs and images

Good figures and tables take time and care to prepare (Chap. 17). Their purpose should always be to display the data in the simplest, clearest possible way, and should be produced to display the important information of interest. In general, tables, graphs and images:

• should be discussed (not just presented) and referred to in the text.
• should be clear and uncluttered.
• should include units of measurement (such as kg) where appropriate.
• should be able to be understood without reference to the paper, as far as possible.
• should use easy-to-read fonts and colours: for example, ensure the font size is sufficiently large when placed in the final article.
• should avoid using different colours, line types or fonts unless these have a purpose (i.e., to differentiate between groups in the study); if they are used, their purpose should be explained (e.., using a figure legend).
• should not include chart junk (such as artificial third dimensions for graphs (Sect. 17.2), and unnecessary lines in tables).

Figures and images typically have captions below, while tables typically have captions above. The source of all images (e.g., the photographer) should be acknowledged, when appropriate. Table should use very few horizontal lines, and no vertical lines.

39.5.2 Presenting numbers

When presenting numbers, ensure all figures are rounded appropriately. Software may report more decimal places than necessary, for instance. When appropriate, ensure units of measurement are given.

Be consistent and careful with decimal numbers. Some journals require numbers to be written with a leading zero, and some do not. For example, some require writing \(P = 0.024\) and some \(P = .024\).

Counts are usually written in words (i.e., 'three') when less than ten (or sometimes twelve), and otherwise presented using digits ('12 041'). However, numbers are written in full when starting a sentence ('Thirty-seven people volunteered').

Numbers taken from software output may need to be sensibly rounded before being included in a report (including in tables and graphs).

39.5.3 Lexically ambiguous words

Avoiding the possibility of readers misinterpreting your writing is important, so write carefully and precisely. One potential source of confusion is words with a different meaning in research compared to every-day use (lexical ambiguity; P. K. Dunn et al. (2016)). The Glossary (Appendix D) may prove helpful. Some specific words where care is needed include:

• Average: In research, 'average' refers to any way of measuring the typical value (Sect. 11.6) including the mean and the median, but also other measures too (like geometric means, for instance). Use the specific word 'mean' or 'median' when that is what you intend.
• Confidence: In research, 'confidence' is usually used in the phrase 'confidence interval' (Sect. 25.4). Take care when using 'confidence' in other contexts.
• Comparison: Distinguishing between a 'within-individuals' and 'between individuals' comparison is important (Sect. 2.7), making sure the type of comparison (within- or between-individuals) is clear.
• Control: In research, a 'control' refers specifically to a control group, and is helpful for maximising internal validity (Def. 2.15).
• Correlation: In research, correlation describes the (often linear) relationship between two quantitative variables (Sect. 16.4.1). In general use, 'correlation' is often used to mean 'association' between any types of variables.
• Estimate: In research, 'estimating' usually means to calculate an estimate for an unknown population parameter using sample information. In general use, 'estimate' often means to make an educated guess.
• Experiment: In research, an experiment is a specific type of research study (Sect. 4.4). Use the word 'study' to talk about experimental and observational studies more generally.
• Graph: In research, a 'graph' is used to summarise data (Chap. 17.2).
• Independent: This words has many uses in statistics and research, in science, and in general use. The word 'independent' in this book refers to events that do not impact each other in a probabilistic sense (Sect. 18.5).
• Intervention: In research, an 'intervention' (Sect. 2.7) is specifically when the researchers can manipulate the comparison.
• Normal: In research, 'normal' often refers to the 'normal distribution' (Chap. 21.3). If this is not the meaning you intend to convey, consider using the word 'usual' or a similar word.
• Odds: In research, 'odds' has a specific meaning (Sect. 12.5) and is different that probability. In general use, 'probability' and 'odds' are often used interchangeably.
• Population: In research, the 'population' refers to a larger group of interest (Sect. 2.2.1). In general use, 'population' often refers to groups of people.
• Random: In research, 'random' has a specific meaning: using impersonal chance. In general usage, it often means 'haphazard' or 'without planning'.
• Regression: In research, 'regression' refers to the mathematical (often linear) relationship between two quantitative variables (Sect. 38).
• Sample: In research, we say (for example) that we 'have one sample of \(30\) fungi' (Sect. 6.2); in some disciplines, this could be described as 'taking \(30\) samples'.
• Significant: This is perhaps the most misused word in scientific writing. In research, 'significance' is usually understood to refer to 'statistical significance' (Sect. 32.6) or similar. If this is not the meaning you intend to convey, consider using the word 'substantial'.
• Variable: In research, a 'variable' is something that can vary from individual to individual (Def. 2.10).

Some symbols may also have different meanings in research than in some other scientific disciplines; again, care is needed when using these symbols:

• \(\beta\): In research, \(\beta\) usually refers to the regression parameters (Sect. 38.3).
• \(\rho\): In research, \(\rho\) refers to the population correlation coefficient (Sect. 16.4.1).

39.6 Chapter summary

Presentations are a verbal and visual medium, and usually do not include many details of what was done; instead, they focus on the major points and conclusions.

Written documents are more formal, and include more details of what was done. They should be written carefully, using the best technically-correct words precisely. Use short sentences and omit unnecessary words.

Remember: 'Don’t write so that you can be understood; write so that you can't be misunderstood' (attributed to William Howard Taft), and 'Write what you mean; mean what you write' (attributed to many).

39.7 Quick review questions

Are these statements true or false?

1. Using long, obscure words makes writing sound more scientific. TRUE FALSE
2. Presentations generally focus on the details of how the study was done. TRUE FALSE
3. The Introduction should explain why the study was done. TRUE FALSE
4. Numbers should be given to as many decimal places as possible, for the greatest accuracy. TRUE FALSE
5. The design of the study should be explained in detail in the Methods section. TRUE FALSE

39.8 Exercises

Answers to odd-numbered exercises are available in App. E.

Exercise 39.1

1. Which is the correct word to complete this sentence: to, too or two?
   'Liquid fertiliser was applied [______] pots each morning at 9am.'
2. Which is the correct word to complete this sentence: its or it's?
   'Each kangaroos was observed for signs that [______] tracking device caused discomfort.'
3. What are the biggest problems with this sentence?
   'We took \(50\) samples of students; the average age of the \(50\) students was \(26.2\) years.'
4. What is the biggest problem with this text?
   'Subjects are not blinded. Because the subjects would clearly know they were in a study.'

Exercise 39.2

1. Which is the correct word to complete this sentence: there, their or they're?
   'The subject were told to eat [______] snacks at about 8am.'
2. What is the biggest problem with this text?
   'The sample of pedestrians were all taken on a Thursday.'
3. Which is the correct word to complete this sentence: affect or effect?
   'The [______] of the diet was to increase the blood pressure.'
4. What is the problem with this sentence? 'The new formulation produces better concrete'.

Exercise 39.3

1. Explain why this sentence is poorly written, and write an improved version:
   'There was one rat in the cage that was male.'
2. Explain how this sentence can be misinterpreted, and write an improved version:
   'The research assistant recorded the pH of the lake water in the beaker after removing weeds.'

Exercise 39.4

1. Explain why this sentence is poorly written, and write an improved version:
   'Fertiliser was applied to one of the fields that was in liquid form.'
2. Explain why this sentence is poorly written, and write an improved version:
   The new diet lost more weight, on average, than the traditional diet.'

Exercise 39.5

1. Explain how this statement can be improved:
   'A significant change in the weight gain of the pigs is expected to be found'.
2. Explain how this statement can be improved:
   'The data is summarised in Table 2.'

Exercise 39.6

1. Explain how this statement can be improved:
   'There is a correlation between sex of the person and chance of contracting the disease'.
2. Explain how this statement can be improved:
   'The group were asked to sign a consent form.'

Exercise 39.7 Oyerinde, Bamisaye, and Essien (2019) state (p. 1):

The regression correlation coefficients of \(0.999996066\) and \(0.999653453\) were obtained for the temperatures and speeds respectively [as a function of time the engine had been running].

What is the problem with this statement?

Exercise 39.8 David et al. (2007) published an article entitled 'Are patients with self-inflicted injuries more likely to die?' What is the problem with this title?

Exercise 39.9 In a student project, students compared the mean reading speed for people when reading two different fonts. Their RQ was:

Which font allows [...] students to read a pangram the fastest, between a default and what is considered to be a 'easy to read' font.

In their Abstract, the conclusion was given as:

The Georgia font [...] is therefore the faster of the two.

1. Explain why this is a poorly-worded RQ. Rewrite the RQ.
2. Explain what is wrong with the conclusion. Rewrite the statement.

Exercise 39.10 In a student project, the students compared the heights that students could jump vertically, starting from a squat or standing position. Every student in the study performed both jumps. Critique their numerical summary (Table 39.1).

TABLE 39.1: The information showing how much higher the (standing) jump height is compared to the squat jump.

	\(n\)	Mean	Standard deviation	Standard error	Confidence interval \(95\)%	\(t\) value	\(P\) value
	\(50\)	\(7.48\)	\(4.674\)	\(0.661\)	\(6.152\) to \(8.808\)	\(11.316\)	\(0.000\)

Exercise 39.11 The aim of a student project was 'to determine if the proportion of males and females that use disposable cups on [the university] Campus is the same'. The two variables observed on each person in the study were whether or not the person used a disposable cup, and the sex of the person. In reporting the results in their Abstract, the students state:

Based on the sample results, the \(95\)% confidence interval for the population mean number of disposable cups used by males and females is between \(0.690\) and \(1.625\). Meaning that the population mean is likely to fall between those two intervals.

Critique this statement.

Exercise 39.12 The aim of student project was 'to determine if the average hang time is different between two types of paper plane designs'. The two variables in the study were design type (Basic Dart; Hunting Flight), and the hang time of the flight of the plane (in seconds). In reporting the results in their Abstract, the students state:

Very strong evidence proving a difference (\(P = .000\)) between the Basic Dart mean hang time (\(881.84\pm 140.73\)) and the Hunting Flight mean hang time (\(1504.19\pm 699.86\)). \(95\)% CI for the means of The Basic Dart (\(829.29\) -- \(934.39\)) and the Hunting Flight (\(1242.86\) -- \(1765.52\)).

Critique this statement.

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Peter K. Dunn, 2024: CC BY-NC-SA 4.0