4.32 Causes: No causation without manipulation

• “NO CAUSATION WITHOUT MANIPULATION” (Holland 1986, 954–55, 959; Rubin 1975, 238)
  • “[C]auses are only those things that could, in principle, be treatments in experiment” (Holland 1986, 954)
  • “[C]auses are experiences that units undergo and not attributes that they possess” (Holland 2003: 8)

References

Holland, Paul W. 1986. “Statistics and Causal Inference.” J. Am. Stat. Assoc. 81 (396): 945–60.

Holland, Paul W. 2003. “Causation and Race.” ETS Research Report Series 2003 (1): i–21.

Rubin, D B. 1975. “Bayesian Inference for Causality: The Importance of Randomization.” The Proceedings of the Social Statistics Section of the.