Welcome

This book addresses a variety of advanced topics in Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) to support users, readers and reviewers of the method. The book supplements existing methodological publications that describe NCA at the basic level (Dul, 2016b, 2020; Dul, Van der Laan, et al., 2020) or summarize the method for different substantive fields including Human Resource Management (Hauff et al., 2021), Marketing (Dul, Hauff, et al., 2021), Tourism Management (Tóth et al., 2019), Education (Tynan et al., 2020), Creativity (Dul, Karwowski, et al., 2020), Supply Chain Management (Bokrantz & Dul, 2023), Entrepreneurship (Linder et al., 2023), Public Health (Greco et al., 2022), and International Business (Richter & Hauff, 2022).

NCA is an emerging research method that is rapidly entering a variety of research fields in the social, medical and technical sciences. The publication in 2016 of NCA’s core paper (Dul, 2016b) marks the start of NCA. Bergh et al. (2022) consider this article as a ‘gold standard’ of a methodological contribution. Several editorial comments (e.g., Fainshmidt et al., 2020; Hernaus & Černe, 2022; Robinson et al., 2022; Sarstedt & Liu, 2023) and review articles (e.g., Aguinis et al., 2020; Boon et al., 2019; Dabić et al., 2021; Frazier et al., 2017; Rozenkowska, 2023) suggest to use NCA in future research.

Since the start of NCA, the number of publications in Web of Science (Clarivate) ranked journals that apply NCA has increased rapidly. A total of 189 English language articles have appeared until the end of 2023 (see Figure 0.1). Articles with problematic applications of NCA (see Dul, 2022) and articles in predatory or ‘grey’ journals according to Quality Open Access Marker were excluded from the list. ‘Q’ stands for the journal quality in terms of category journal rank by impact factor. Q1 = first quartile, etc. Q? indicates that no quality rank is available.

Cumulative number of publications in Web of Science (Clarivate) ranked journals that apply NCA. (Situation of 31 December 2023).

Figure 0.1: Cumulative number of publications in Web of Science (Clarivate) ranked journals that apply NCA. (Situation of 31 December 2023).

Table 0.1 shows details about these articles. Being listed does not automatically imply that NCA was always properly described and applied in all its aspects (see section 1.7 for basic guidelines). Up to a quarter of the articles use NCA as the sole or primary research method. Another about a quarter articles combine NCA with Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). About half of the articles are multi-method articles that apply NCA in combination with regression based methods like Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), variance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and in particular with Partial-Least-Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The growth of combining PLS-SEM with NCA may have been stimulated by the availability of an NCA module in the SmartPLS software (see section 7.1.2).

Table 0.1: Journal articles with NCA applications. (Situation of 31 December 2023).
Year Author(s) Reference Journal Journal quality
2024 Cassia & Magno Cassia & Magno (2024) Journal of Business Research Q1
2024 Gao, Luo, Wang, Zhang & Deng, Gao et al. (2024) Journal of Construction Engineering and Management Q1
2024 Wattanacharoensil, Fakfare, Manosuthi, Lee, Chi & Han Wattanacharoensil et al. (2024) Tourism Management Q1
2023 Acquah Acquah (2023) RAUSP Management Journal Q3
2023 Acquah, Issau, Dei Mensah & Vanderpuye Acquah et al. (2023) Heliyon Q2
2023 Ahmad, Al Mamun, Masukujjaman, Makhbul & Ali Ahmad et al. (2023) Heliyon Q2
2023 Allard-Poesi & Massu Allard-Poesi & Massu (2023) Landscape and Urban Planning Q1
2023 Battistoni, Gitto, Murgia & Campisi Battistoni et al. (2023) International Journal of Production Economics Q1
2023 Bokrantz & Dul Bokrantz & Dul (2023) Journal of Supply Chain Management Q1
2023 Bokrantz & Skoogh Bokrantz & Skoogh (2023) International Journal of Production Economics Q1
2023 Bouncken, Fredrich, Sinkovics & Sinkovics Bouncken et al. (2023) Global Strategy Journal Q1
2023 Bouzari, Gyenge, Ebrahimi & Fekete-Farkas Bouzari et al. (2023) Computation Q2
2023 Carmona, Stef, Jabeur & Zaied Carmona et al. (2023) Journal of Environmental Management Q1
2023 Cheng & Jiang Cheng & Jiang (2023) Management Decision Q2
2023 Chong & Ham Chong & Ham (2023) Journal of Computational Chemistry Q2
2023 Czakon, Klimas, & Kawa Czakon et al. (2023) Industrial Marketing Management Q1
2023 Damberg, Liu & Ringle Damberg et al. (2023) Marketing Analytics Q3
2023 Delladio, Caputo, Magrini & Pellegrini Delladio et al. (2023) Management Decision Q3
2023 Dinh, Mühlbacher & Torchia Dinh et al. (2023) Journal of Brand Management Q3
2023 Dionisio, Inacio Junior, Morini & Carvalho Dionisio et al. (2023) RAUSP Management Journal Q3
2023 Edelmann, Boen, Stouten, Vande Broek & Fransen Edelmann et al. (2023) Behavioral Sciences Q2
2023 Escadas, Jalali, Septianto & Farhangmehr Escadas et al. (2023) Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility Q2
2023 Fan, Li & Wang Fan et al. (2023) Sustainability Q2
2023 Fang, Dong, Weng & Chen Fang et al. (2022) Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research Q2
2023 Foroughi, Iranmanesh, Nilashi, Ghobakhloo, Asadi & Khoshkam Foroughi et al. (2023) Consumer Behaviour Q3
2023 Gorgievski, Bakker, Petrou & Gawke Gorgievski et al. (2023) International Public Management Journal Q3
2023 Guo, Fu & Sun Guo et al. (2023) Scientific Reports Q2
2023 Harun, Hogset & Mwesiumo Harun et al. (2023) Sustainable Development Q1
2023 He & Ismail He & Ismail (2023) Humanities and Social Sciences Communications Q2
2023 Hermans, Borda, Newburry, Cordova Chea, Finchelstein, Gonzalez-Perez, … & Velez-Ocampo Hermans et al. (2023) European Business Review Q1
2023 Huang & Bu Y. Huang & Bu (2023) Journal of Innovation & Knowledge Q1
2023 Huang, Li & Li Y. Huang, Li, & Li (2023) Technological Forecasting & Social Change Q1
2023 Huang, Li, Bu & Zhao Y. Huang, Li, Bu, et al. (2023) Journal of Cleaner Production Q1
2023 Huang, Li, Chen, & Wang Y. Huang, Li, Chen, et al. (2023) Journal of Innovation and Knowledge Q1
2023 Jain, Kaushik & Sharma Jain et al. (2023) International Journal of Consumer Studies Q1
2023 Jin & Li Jin & Li (2023) Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Q1
2023 Kaushik, Jain & Choudhary Kaushik et al. (2023) Case Studies on Transport Policy Q3
2023 Kazemzadeh, Fuinhas, Salehnia, Koengkan & Silva Kazemzadeh et al. (2023) Environmental Science and Pollution Research Q2
2023 Kopplin C. Kopplin et al. (2023) Australasian Journal of Information Systems Q?
2023 Lankoski & Lankoski Lankoski & Lankoski (2023) Ecological Economics Q1
2023 Lee, Abner & Hameduddin S. Lee et al. (2023) The American Review of Public Administration Q1
2023 Li & Liu M. Li & Liu (2023) Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, Q3
2023 Li, Du, Sun & Xie J. Li et al. (2023) Chinese Management Studies Q4
2023 Li, Fan, Kumar & Ananthram Y. Li et al. (2023) Journal of Management Studies Q1
2023 Li, Zhang, Zhang & Yan F. Li et al. (2023) Sustainability Q2
2023 Liang, Wang, Foley & Ma Liang et al. (2023) Applied Economics Q2
2023 Lim, Leong, Lim, Lim, Lim & Heng T.-Y. Lim et al. (2023) Young Consumers Q?
2023 Lim, Munikrishnan, Leong, Hiew, Leong & Yang W. Lim et al. (2023) Information and Computer Security Q3
2023 Linder, Moulick & Lechner Linder et al. (2023) Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice Q1
2023 Liu, Wang, He, Ma & Fu H. Liu et al. (2023) Journal of Cleaner Production Q1
2023 Liu, Wen, Peng & Cao Q. Liu et al. (2023) Journal of Cleaner Production Q1
2023 Luo, Wang, Liu, Zhang & Fang Mwesiumo, Halpern, et al. (2023) Ecological Indicators Q1
2023 Luo, Yang & Wang G. Luo et al. (2023) Plos One Q2
2023 Manchiraju, Akbari & Seydavi Manchiraju et al. (2023) Current Psychology Q2
2023 Munir, Hussain, Farooq, Habib & Shahzad Munir et al. (2023) Sustainability Q2
2023 Mwesiumo, Halpern, Bråthen, Budd & Suau-Sanchez Mwesiumo, Halpern, et al. (2023) ransportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice Q1
2023 Mwesiumo, Harun & Hogset Mwesiumo, Harun, et al. (2023) Industrial Marketing Management Q1
2023 Oyadomari, Bido, Mendonça Neto, Aguiar & Dultra-de-Lima Oyadomari et al. (2023) Revista Contabilidade & Financas Q4
2023 Pandey, Thomas, Bhatt, Patel & Malkar Pandey et al. (2023) Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice Q?
2023 Peltokorpi & Sekiguchi Peltokorpi & Sekiguchi (2023) European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology Q2
2023 Qu, Qin & Wang Qu et al. (2023) Sustainability Q2
2023 Ruiz-Equihua, Romero, Loureiro & Ali Ruiz-Equihua et al. (2023) International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Q1
2023 Sanyal, Jain & Choudhury Sanyal et al. (n.d.) International Social Science Journal Q4
2023 Si, Li, Duan, Cheng & Bao Si et al. (2023) Sustainable Production and Consumption Q1
2023 Singh, Jain, Sharma & Nigam Singh et al. (2023) International Journal of Project Management Q1
2023 Solaimani & Swaak Solaimani & Swaak (2023) Journal of Engineering and Technology Management Q2
2023 Su, Nguyen-Phuoc, Tran, Van Nguyen, Luu & Pham Su et al. (2023) Travel Behaviour and Society Q2
2023 Sun, Fu & Yang Sun et al. (2023) Journal of Innovation & Knowledge Q1
2023 Suryavanshi, Thomas, Trivedi, Patel & Bhatt Suryavanshi et al. (2023) Journal of Philanthropy and Marketing Q4
2023 Talib, Papastathopoulo & Ahmad Talib et al. (2023) Digital Policy Regulation and Governance Q2
2023 Tan & Wei Tan & Wei (2023) Journal of the Knowledge Economy Q2
2023 Tao, Ke & Zhang Tao et al. (2023) Journal of Organizational Change Management Q4
2023 Thapa, Mishra, Dey, Golias & Ashraf Thapa et al. (2023) Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems Q3
2023 Thu, Kadirov, Fam & Tho Thu et al. (2023) Journal of Macromarketing Q3
2023 Tiwari, Kaurav & Koay Tiwari et al. (2023) Journal of Marketing Analytics Q3
2023 Tumaku, Ren, Boakye, Ofori & Abubakari Tumaku et al. (2023) International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences Q3
2023 Wang & Wang J. Wang & Wang (2023) Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics Q3
2023 Wang, Li, Gao, Zeng, Wang, Li & Li G. Wang, Li, et al. (2023) Land Use Policy Q1
2023 Wang, Zhang, Luo & Abedin X. Wang et al. (2023) Journal of Environmental Management Q1
2023 Wang, Zhang, Zeng, Meng & Lin G. Wang, Zhang, et al. (2023) Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management Q1
2023 Wood, Lowman, Armstrong III & Harms Wood et al. (2023) Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Q1
2023 Yan, Liu, Chen, Zhang & Wu Yan et al. (2023) Public Administration Q1
2023 Yu, Cheah & Liu Yu et al. (2022) International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management Q1
2023 Zhang J. Zhang (2023b) Current Issues in Tourism Q1
2023 Zhang J. Zhang (2023a) Journal of Sustainable Tourism Q1
2023 Zhou Zhou (2023) Frontiers in Psychololy Q1
2023 Zhu, Miao, Wang & Li Zhu et al. (2023) Electronic Commerce Research and Applications Q1
2023 Zielińska, Lebuda & Karwowski Zielińska et al. (2023) Personality and Individual Differences Q2
2022 Abdalla, Mwesiumo, Öztüren & Kılıç Abdalla et al. (2022) International Journal of Tourism Research Q1
2022 Afrin & Prybutok Afrin & Prybutok (2022) Health Promotion International Q1
2022 Anand, Arya, Suresh & Sharma Anand et al. (2022) Tourism Planning & Development Q2
2022 Arbabi, Khansari, Salamzadeh, Gholampour, Ebrahimi & Fekete-Farkas Arbabi et al. (2022) Journal of Risk and Financial Management Q2
2022 Bakır, Akan, Özdemir, Nguyen, Tsai & Pham Bakır et al. (2022) Sustainability Q2
2022 Bi, Li, Hua, Zhu, & Ye Bi et al. (2022) Transport Policy Q1
2022 Blom, Voorn & Borst Blom et al. (2022) Public Management Review Q1
2022 Bokhorst, Knol, Slomp & Bortolotti Bokhorst et al. (2022) International Journal of Production Economics Q1
2022 Bolívar, Roldán, Castro-Abancéns, & Casanueva Bolı́var et al. (2022) Management International Review Q2
2022 Cheung, Leung, Aw & Koay Cheung et al. (2022) Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services Q1
2022 Costa, Daher, Neves, & Velez Costa et al. (2022) European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology Q2
2022 Deng, Zhuang, Li & Yang Deng et al. (2022) Industrial Management & Data Systems Q2
2022 Ding Ding (2022) Journal of Innovation & Knowledge Q1
2022 Eggers, Risselada, Niemand & Robledo Eggers et al. (2022) Journal of Business Research Q1
2022 Fan, Wang & Lu Fan et al. (2022) Sustainability Q2
2022 Fredrich, Bouncken & Tiberius Fredrich et al. (2022) Journal of Business Research Q1
2022 Frommeyer, Wagner, Hossiep & Schewe Frommeyer et al. (2022) Journal of Business Research Q1
2022 Gantert, Fredrich, Bouncken & Kraus Gantert et al. (2022) Journal of Business Research Q1
2022 Glück & Scherpf Glück & Scherpf (2022) Psychology and Aging Q1
2022 Glück, Weststrate & Scherpf Glück et al. (2022) Journal of Happiness Studies Q1
2022 Gu, Wu, Wu, He, Tao, Ye, … & Qiu Gu et al. (2022) BMC public health Q2
2022 Han & Zhang Han & Zhang (2022) Managerial and Decision Economics Q3
2022 Hayat, Salameh, Malik & Yaacob Hayat et al. (2022) Technology in Society Q1
2022 Huang, Tung, Wang, Xu, Lam & Zhang X. Huang et al. (2022) Heliyon Q2
2022 Huang, Zhang, Wang, Li & Li Y. Huang et al. (2022) Journal of Innovation & Knowledge Q1
2022 Jain, Bhaskar, & Jain Jain et al. (2022) Research in Transportation Business and Management Q2
2022 Jaiswal & Zane Jaiswal & Zane (2022) Thunderbird International Business Review Q3
2022 Klimas, Czakon & Fredrich Klimas et al. (2022) European Management Journal Q2
2022 Koay, Cheah & Chang Koay et al. (2022) British Food Journal Q2
2022 Kopplin & Rösch C. S. Kopplin & Rösch (2021) Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services Q1
2022 Kopplin, Gantert & Maier C. S. Kopplin et al. (2022) Review of Managerial Science Q2
2022 Korman, Van Quaquebeke & Tröster Korman et al. (2022) Journal of Business and Psychology Q1
2022 Kwon Kwon (2022) Cryogenics Q3
2022 Lee & Borgonovi J. Lee & Borgonovi (2022) Comparative Education Review Q2
2022 Lee, Park, & Jeong W. Lee et al. (2022) Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Q1
2022 Li, Niu, Liu & Wu R. Li et al. (2022) Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management Q2
2022 Liehr & Hauff Liehr & Hauff (2022) International Journal of Innovation Management Q3
2022 Liu, Yu & Damberg Y. Liu et al. (2022) Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship Q4
2022 Loh, Lee & Leong Loh et al. (2022) Expert Systems with Applications Q1
2022 Lu, Yang & Yu Q. Lu et al. (2022) International Journal of Emerging Markets Q2
2022 Matusek Matusek (2022) Sustainability Q2
2022 Pangarso, Winarno, Aulia & Ritonga Pangarso et al. (2022) Leadership & Organization Development Journal Q2
2022 Peng, Zhao, Elahi & Wan Peng et al. (2022) Technological Forecasting and Social Change Q1
2022 Pinochet, de Souza, Viana & Rodríguez-Abitia Pinochet et al. (2024) Revista de Gestão Q3
2022 Prakash, Jeyakumar Nathan, Kini & Victor Prakash et al. (2022) Plos One Q2
2022 Richter & Hauff Richter & Hauff (2022) Journal of World Business Q1
2022 Saraf, Saha & Anand Saraf et al. (2022) International Journal of Public Sector Management Q3
2022 Sharma, Dwivedi, Mariani & Islam Sharma et al. (2022) Technological Forecasting and Social Change Q1
2022 Sukhov, Olsson & Friman Sukhov et al. (2022) Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice Q1
2022 Torres & Godinho Torres & Godinho (2022) Small Business Economics Q1
2022 Tsekouras, Li & Benbasat Tsekouras et al. (2022) Information & Management Q1
2022 Wang, Jiang, Zhu & Song L. Wang et al. (2022) Journal of Management in Engineering Q1
2022 Yang & Hurmelinna-Laukkanen Yang & Hurmelinna-Laukkanen (2022) Technovation Q1
2022 Yuan, Xu, Niu & Guo Yuan et al. (2022) Journal of Environmental and Public Health Q2
2022 Zahrai, Veer, Ballantine, de Vries & Prayag Zahrai et al. (2022) Journal of Consumer Affairs Q2
2022 Zheng, Shi & Jiang Zheng et al. (2022) PloS one Q2
2021 Batey, Hughes, Crick & Toader Batey et al. (2021) Ergonomics Q3
2021 Camitan IV & Bajin Camitan IV & Bajin (2021) Frontiers in psychology Q1
2021 Delgosha, Saheb & Hajiheydari Delgosha et al. (2021) Information Systems Frontiers Q1
2021 Della Corte, Aria, Del Gaudio, Barney, Cobanoglu & Sepe Della Corte et al. (2021) International Journal of Hospitality Management Q1
2021 Du & Kim Du & Kim (2021) Journal of Business Research Q1
2021 Ebrahimi, Khajeheian & Fekete-Farkas Ebrahimi et al. (2021) International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Q1
2021 Franke & Foerstl Franke & Foerstl (2021) Journal of Business Logistics Q1
2021 Hauff, Guerci, Dul & van Rhee Hauff et al. (2021) Human Resource Management Journal Q1
2021 Kopplin & Rausch C. S. Kopplin & Rausch (2022) Review of Managerial Science Q2
2021 Kumar Kumar (2021) Case Studies on Transport Policy Q3
2021 Lee & Jeong W. Lee & Jeong (2021) Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management Q1
2021 Lyu, Chin, Zhang & Liu Lyu et al. (2021) Journal of Consumer Behavior Q3
2021 Mazumder & Garg Mazumder & Garg (2021) International Journal of Information Management Q1
2021 Richter, Martin, Hansen, Taras & Alon Richter et al. (2021) Journal of Business Research Q1
2021 Stek & Schiele Stek & Schiele (2021) Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management Q1
2021 Tuuli, & van Rhee Tuuli & Rhee (2021) Journal of Management in Engineering Q1
2020 Bouncken, Fredrich & Kraus Bouncken, Fredrich, et al. (2020) Long Range Planning Q1
2020 Bouncken, Ratzmann, Barwinski & Kraus Bouncken, Ratzmann, et al. (2020) Journal of Business Research Q1
2020 Chaurasia, Kaul, Yadav & Shukla Chaurasia et al. (2020) Journal of Knowledge Management Q1
2020 Fujita & Kusano Fujita & Kusano (2020) Journal of East Asian Studies Q3
2020 Jabeur Ben Jabeur (2020) Environmental Modeling & Assessment Q3
2020 Karwowski, Jankowska, Brzeski, Czerwonka, Gajda, Lebuda & Beghetto Karwowski et al. (2020) Creativity Research Journal Q2
2020 Kobarg, Stumpf-Wollersheim, Schlägel & Welpe Kobarg et al. (2020) Industry and Innovation Q1
2020 Lee & Jeong W. Lee & Jeong (2020) Current Issues in Tourism Q1
2020 Richter, Schlaegel, Bakel & Engle Richter, Schlaegel, et al. (2020) European Journal of International Management Q3
2020 Richter, Schubring, Hauff, Ringle & Sarstedt Richter, Schubring, et al. (2020) Industrial Management & Data Systems Q2
2020 Tynan, Credé & Harms Tynan et al. (2020) Learning and Individual Differences Q2
2019 Fredrich, Bouncken & Kraus Fredrich et al. (2019) Journal of Business Research Q1
2019 Jada & Mukhopadhyay Jada & Mukhopadhyay (2019) Personnel Review Q2
2019 Knol, Slomp, Schouteten & Lauche Knol et al. (2019) International Journal of Operations & Production Management Q1
2019 Shahjehan, Afsar & Shah Shahjehan et al. (2019) Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja Q2
2019 Tho Tho (2019a) Education and Training Q2
2019 Tho Tho (2019b) Baltic Journal Of Management Q3
2019 Toth, Dul & Li Tóth et al. (2019) Annals of Tourism Research Q1
2019 Wei & Chen Wei & Chen (2019) Sustainability Q2
2018 Kerwin, Hittle, Stredney, De Boeck & Wiet Kerwin et al. (2018) Journal of surgical education Q2
2018 Knol, Slomp, Schouteten & Lauche Knol et al. (2018) International Journal of Production Research Q1
2018 Tho Tho (2018) Journal of Management Development Q3
2017 de Vries, de Koster, Rijsdijk & Roy De Vries et al. (2017) Transportation research part E: logistics and transportation review Q1
2017 Karwowski, Kaufman, Lebuda, Szumski & Firkowska-Mankiewicz Karwowski et al. (2017) Intelligence Q1
2017 Luther, Bonfils, Firmin, Buck, Choi, DiMaggio, Popolo, Minor & Lysaker Luther et al. (2017) The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,  Q3
2017 Shi, Wang, Yang, Zhang & Xu Shi et al. (2017) Frontiers in psychology Q2
2016 Golini, Deflorin & Scherrer Golini et al. (2016) International Journal of Operations & Production Management Q1
2016 Karwowski, Dul, Gralewski, Jauk, Jankowska, Gajda, Chruszczewsk & Benedek Karwowski et al. (2016) Intelligence Q1
2016 Van der Valk, Sumo, Dul & Schroeder Van der Valk et al. (2016) Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management Q1


Several articles that apply NCA did not find a necessary condition (e.g., Batey et al., 2021; Golini et al., 2016; Gu et al., 2022; L. Luo et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2022) but the majority identified at least one. Not finding a necessary condition might be a valuable result, because such result tells that a supposed essential factor for an outcome does not need to be present and its absence can be compensated (e.g., Arenius et al., 2017). On the other hand, finding a large number of potential necessary conditions in an explorative study may not be informative when several conditions do not have a theoretical meaning or are trivial (e.g., Gantert et al., 2022; Klimas et al., 2022; Stek & Schiele, 2021).

NCA can be used in any type of research that aims to find causal relationships between causes and effects. With conventional regression based research methods (e.g, multiple linear regression, structural equation modeling), research questions about cause-effect relationships are often formulated like ‘what is the effect of \(X\) on \(Y\)?’ and related hypotheses similar to ‘\(X\) has a positive (or negative) effect on \(Y\)’. Such causal relationship imply an average effect of \(X\) on \(Y\) which can be graphically shown as an arrow between \(X\) and \(Y\) indicating a temporal direction: first \(X\), then \(Y\), with a + or - sign shown above the arrow indicating that \(X\) increases or decreases \(Y\) on average. However, the type of causality is usually not specified. The regression equation consisting of terms that are added to produce the average effect including an ‘error term’, implicitly assumes additive causal logic and average effects. Consequently, cause \(X\) is assumed to contribute to producing effect \(Y\) on average, and the absence of \(X\) can be compensated by the presence of other causes. In other words: \(X\) is an average contributor to \(Y\).

However, in NCA, cause \(X\) is assumed to be a necessary cause of \(Y\). The research question is formulated as ‘is \(X\) necessary for \(Y\)?’ and the corresponding hypothesis as ‘\(X\) is necessary for \(Y\)’. If \(X\) is necessary for \(Y\), single cause \(X\) can stop the outcome when it is absent or has a low value. It can be a bottleneck, a critical success factor or a must have factor. NCA does not make a claim about the average contributing effect of necessary causes.

This means that any conventional research question or hypothesis about causal relationships can be revisited from the perspective of necessity. The cause could be necessary (essential) for the effect. It is important to know whether causes are necessary or not, because if any necessary cause is absent, the effect cannot be achieved. In practice this means that acting on other causes than the bottleneck cause has no effect (no compensation possible) and would be a waste of effort.

The entire NCA method consists of three parts:

  • Using necessity logic for developing theoretical causal statements (theory, hypotheses).

  • Data analysis for calculating necessity parameters.

  • Statistical testing for evaluating necessity parameters.

Methodological backgrounds of NCA have appeared in several publications (Table 0.2).

Table 0.2: Methods publications about NCA
Year Author(s) Reference Main contribution
2016 Dul Dul (2016b) Core article introducing NCA
2016 Dul Dul (2016a) Necessity logic in NCA and QCA
2018 Vis & Dul Vis & Dul (2018) Differences between NCA and QCA
2020 Dul Dul (2020) Text book for NCA
2020 Dul Dul, Van der Laan, et al. (2020) Statistical significance test for NCA
2020 Richter, Schubring, Hauff, Ringle & Sarstedt Richter, Schubring, et al. (2020) Guidelines for combining NCA with PLS-SEM
2021 Dul Dul (2021) Advanced topics of NCA (this book)
2023 Bokrantz & Dul Bokrantz & Dul (2023) Building necessity theories
2023 Dul Dul (2023) The diffusion of NCA in academia
2023 Dul, Hauff & Bouncken Dul et al. (2023) Guidelines for conducting and reporting NCA
2024 Dul, van Raaij & Caputo Dul et al. (2024) Reusing data for NCA
2024 Hauff, Richter, Sarstedt, & Ringle Hauff et al. (2024) Adding NCA results to IPMA of PLS-SEM
2024 Dul Dul (2024a) Comparing NCA’s causal logic with other causal logics
2024 Dul Dul (2024b) Sampling in NCA for qualitative and quantitative research


Because NCA is an emerging method, new insights are gained, and extensions are being developed. This book intends to provide the latest insights and developments of NCA. The topics are selected from interactions with the research community at conferences, webinars, workshops and in email exchanges. Some topics are extensively covered, others await elaboration.

This book was first published online in 2021. As the NCA approach is developing, the content of the book is developing as well. The book will therefore remain an online book with a version number. Please, contact the author if you want to react on the book or wish to have new topics covered in it. Your contribution will be acknowledged.

The suggested reference to the book is Dul, J. (2021) Advances in Necessary Condition Analysis. The book is hosted on https://bookdown.org/ncabook/advanced_nca2/.

Version history:

Version 0.1 (October 10, 2021). First published (draft) version. Several sections under construction.

Version 1.0 (March 20, 2022). First full version. All sections available.

Version 1.1 (August 2, 2022). Extended with basic guidelines for good NCA practice, outlier analysis.

Version 1.2 (October 28, 2022). Extended with necessity theories, combining NCA and regression, interpretation of the bottleneck table.

Version 1.3 (January 4, 2023). Extended with the necessity experiment; major update of references.

Version 1.4 (March 1, 2023). Extended with visual inspection of the scatter plot, robustness checks, and data transformation.

Version 1.5 (August 2, 2023). Reorganized Statistics chapter, and extended with power analysis.

Version 1.6 (January 3, 2023). Major update of references.



The latest version is regularly updated with small fixes.

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