Advances in Necessary Condition Analysis
First published October 10, 2021
Version 0.1 (First published October 10, 2021)
Version 1.0 (First published March 20, 2022)
Version 1.1 (First published August 2, 2022)
Version 1.2 (First published October 28, 2022)
Version 1.3 (First published January 4, 2023)
Version 1.4 (First published March 1, 2023)
Version 1.5 (First published August 2, 2023)
Version 1.6 (First published January 3, 2024; Last update: October 12, 2024)
Suggested reference: Dul, J. (2021). Advances in Necessary Condition Analysis. https://bookdown.org/ncabook/advanced_nca2/.
Welcome
This book addresses a variety of advanced topics in Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) to support users, readers and reviewers of the method. The book supplements existing methodological publications that describe NCA at the basic level (Dul, 2016b, 2020; Dul, Van der Laan, et al., 2020) or summarize the method for different substantive fields including Human Resource Management (Hauff et al., 2021), Marketing (Dul, Hauff, et al., 2021), Tourism Management (Tóth et al., 2019), Education (Tynan et al., 2020), Creativity (Dul, Karwowski, et al., 2020), Supply Chain Management (Bokrantz & Dul, 2023), Entrepreneurship (Linder et al., 2023), Public Health (Greco et al., 2022), and International Business (Richter & Hauff, 2022).
NCA is an emerging research method that is rapidly entering a variety of research fields in the social, medical and technical sciences. The publication in 2016 of NCA’s core paper (Dul, 2016b) marks the start of NCA. Bergh et al. (2022) consider this article as a ‘gold standard’ of a methodological contribution. Several editorial comments (e.g., Fainshmidt et al., 2020; Hernaus & Černe, 2022; Robinson et al., 2022; Sarstedt & Liu, 2023) and review articles (e.g., Aguinis et al., 2020; Boon et al., 2019; Dabić et al., 2021; Frazier et al., 2017; Rozenkowska, 2023) suggest to use NCA in future research.
Since the start of NCA, the number of publications in Web of Science (Clarivate) ranked journals that apply NCA has increased rapidly. A total of 189 English language articles have appeared until the end of 2023 (see Figure 0.1). Articles with problematic applications of NCA (see Dul, 2022) and articles in predatory or ‘grey’ journals according to Quality Open Access Marker were excluded from the list. ‘Q’ stands for the journal quality in terms of category journal rank by impact factor. Q1 = first quartile, etc. Q? indicates that no quality rank is available.
Figure 0.1: Cumulative number of publications in Web of Science (Clarivate) ranked journals that apply NCA. (Situation of 31 December 2023).
Table 0.1 shows details about these articles. Being listed does not automatically imply that NCA was always properly described and applied in all its aspects (see section 1.7 for basic guidelines). Up to a quarter of the articles use NCA as the sole or primary research method. Another about a quarter articles combine NCA with Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA). About half of the articles are multi-method articles that apply NCA in combination with regression based methods like Multiple Linear Regression (MLR), variance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), and in particular with Partial-Least-Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The growth of combining PLS-SEM with NCA may have been stimulated by the availability of an NCA module in the SmartPLS software (see section 7.1.2).
| Year | Author(s) | Reference | Journal | Journal quality |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2024 | Cassia & Magno | Cassia & Magno (2024) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2024 | Gao, Luo, Wang, Zhang & Deng, | Gao et al. (2024) | Journal of Construction Engineering and Management | Q1 |
| 2024 | Wattanacharoensil, Fakfare, Manosuthi, Lee, Chi & Han | Wattanacharoensil et al. (2024) | Tourism Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Acquah | Acquah (2023) | RAUSP Management Journal | Q3 |
| 2023 | Acquah, Issau, Dei Mensah & Vanderpuye | Acquah et al. (2023) | Heliyon | Q2 |
| 2023 | Ahmad, Al Mamun, Masukujjaman, Makhbul & Ali | Ahmad et al. (2023) | Heliyon | Q2 |
| 2023 | Allard-Poesi & Massu | Allard-Poesi & Massu (2023) | Landscape and Urban Planning | Q1 |
| 2023 | Battistoni, Gitto, Murgia & Campisi | Battistoni et al. (2023) | International Journal of Production Economics | Q1 |
| 2023 | Bokrantz & Dul | Bokrantz & Dul (2023) | Journal of Supply Chain Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Bokrantz & Skoogh | Bokrantz & Skoogh (2023) | International Journal of Production Economics | Q1 |
| 2023 | Bouncken, Fredrich, Sinkovics & Sinkovics | Bouncken et al. (2023) | Global Strategy Journal | Q1 |
| 2023 | Bouzari, Gyenge, Ebrahimi & Fekete-Farkas | Bouzari et al. (2023) | Computation | Q2 |
| 2023 | Carmona, Stef, Jabeur & Zaied | Carmona et al. (2023) | Journal of Environmental Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Cheng & Jiang | Cheng & Jiang (2023) | Management Decision | Q2 |
| 2023 | Chong & Ham | Chong & Ham (2023) | Journal of Computational Chemistry | Q2 |
| 2023 | Czakon, Klimas, & Kawa | Czakon et al. (2023) | Industrial Marketing Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Damberg, Liu & Ringle | Damberg et al. (2023) | Marketing Analytics | Q3 |
| 2023 | Delladio, Caputo, Magrini & Pellegrini | Delladio et al. (2023) | Management Decision | Q3 |
| 2023 | Dinh, Mühlbacher & Torchia | Dinh et al. (2023) | Journal of Brand Management | Q3 |
| 2023 | Dionisio, Inacio Junior, Morini & Carvalho | Dionisio et al. (2023) | RAUSP Management Journal | Q3 |
| 2023 | Edelmann, Boen, Stouten, Vande Broek & Fransen | Edelmann et al. (2023) | Behavioral Sciences | Q2 |
| 2023 | Escadas, Jalali, Septianto & Farhangmehr | Escadas et al. (2023) | Business Ethics, the Environment & Responsibility | Q2 |
| 2023 | Fan, Li & Wang | Fan et al. (2023) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2023 | Fang, Dong, Weng & Chen | Fang et al. (2022) | Journal of Theoretical and Applied Electronic Commerce Research | Q2 |
| 2023 | Foroughi, Iranmanesh, Nilashi, Ghobakhloo, Asadi & Khoshkam | Foroughi et al. (2023) | Consumer Behaviour | Q3 |
| 2023 | Gorgievski, Bakker, Petrou & Gawke | Gorgievski et al. (2023) | International Public Management Journal | Q3 |
| 2023 | Guo, Fu & Sun | Guo et al. (2023) | Scientific Reports | Q2 |
| 2023 | Harun, Hogset & Mwesiumo | Harun et al. (2023) | Sustainable Development | Q1 |
| 2023 | He & Ismail | He & Ismail (2023) | Humanities and Social Sciences Communications | Q2 |
| 2023 | Hermans, Borda, Newburry, Cordova Chea, Finchelstein, Gonzalez-Perez, … & Velez-Ocampo | Hermans et al. (2023) | European Business Review | Q1 |
| 2023 | Huang & Bu | Y. Huang & Bu (2023) | Journal of Innovation & Knowledge | Q1 |
| 2023 | Huang, Li & Li | Y. Huang, Li, & Li (2023) | Technological Forecasting & Social Change | Q1 |
| 2023 | Huang, Li, Bu & Zhao | Y. Huang, Li, Bu, et al. (2023) | Journal of Cleaner Production | Q1 |
| 2023 | Huang, Li, Chen, & Wang | Y. Huang, Li, Chen, et al. (2023) | Journal of Innovation and Knowledge | Q1 |
| 2023 | Jain, Kaushik & Sharma | (jain2023drives?) | International Journal of Consumer Studies | Q1 |
| 2023 | Jin & Li | Jin & Li (2023) | Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | Q1 |
| 2023 | Kaushik, Jain & Choudhary | Kaushik et al. (2023) | Case Studies on Transport Policy | Q3 |
| 2023 | Kazemzadeh, Fuinhas, Salehnia, Koengkan & Silva | Kazemzadeh et al. (2023) | Environmental Science and Pollution Research | Q2 |
| 2023 | Kopplin | C. Kopplin et al. (2023) | Australasian Journal of Information Systems | Q? |
| 2023 | Lankoski & Lankoski | Lankoski & Lankoski (2023) | Ecological Economics | Q1 |
| 2023 | Lee, Abner & Hameduddin | S. Lee et al. (2023) | The American Review of Public Administration | Q1 |
| 2023 | Li & Liu | M. Li & Liu (2023) | Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, | Q3 |
| 2023 | Li, Du, Sun & Xie | J. Li et al. (2023) | Chinese Management Studies | Q4 |
| 2023 | Li, Fan, Kumar & Ananthram | Y. Li et al. (2023) | Journal of Management Studies | Q1 |
| 2023 | Li, Zhang, Zhang & Yan | F. Li et al. (2023) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2023 | Liang, Wang, Foley & Ma | Liang et al. (2023) | Applied Economics | Q2 |
| 2023 | Lim, Leong, Lim, Lim, Lim & Heng | T.-Y. Lim et al. (2023) | Young Consumers | Q? |
| 2023 | Lim, Munikrishnan, Leong, Hiew, Leong & Yang | W. Lim et al. (2023) | Information and Computer Security | Q3 |
| 2023 | Linder, Moulick & Lechner | Linder et al. (2023) | Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice | Q1 |
| 2023 | Liu, Wang, He, Ma & Fu | H. Liu et al. (2023) | Journal of Cleaner Production | Q1 |
| 2023 | Liu, Wen, Peng & Cao | Q. Liu et al. (2023) | Journal of Cleaner Production | Q1 |
| 2023 | Luo, Wang, Liu, Zhang & Fang | Mwesiumo, Halpern, et al. (2023) | Ecological Indicators | Q1 |
| 2023 | Luo, Yang & Wang | G. Luo et al. (2023) | Plos One | Q2 |
| 2023 | Manchiraju, Akbari & Seydavi | Manchiraju et al. (2023) | Current Psychology | Q2 |
| 2023 | Munir, Hussain, Farooq, Habib & Shahzad | Munir et al. (2023) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2023 | Mwesiumo, Halpern, Bråthen, Budd & Suau-Sanchez | Mwesiumo, Halpern, et al. (2023) | ransportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice | Q1 |
| 2023 | Mwesiumo, Harun & Hogset | Mwesiumo, Harun, et al. (2023) | Industrial Marketing Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Oyadomari, Bido, Mendonça Neto, Aguiar & Dultra-de-Lima | Oyadomari et al. (2023) | Revista Contabilidade & Financas | Q4 |
| 2023 | Pandey, Thomas, Bhatt, Patel & Malkar | Pandey et al. (2023) | Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice | Q? |
| 2023 | Peltokorpi & Sekiguchi | Peltokorpi & Sekiguchi (2023) | European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology | Q2 |
| 2023 | Qu, Qin & Wang | Qu et al. (2023) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2023 | Ruiz-Equihua, Romero, Loureiro & Ali | Ruiz-Equihua et al. (2023) | International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Sanyal, Jain & Choudhury | Sanyal et al. (n.d.) | International Social Science Journal | Q4 |
| 2023 | Si, Li, Duan, Cheng & Bao | Si et al. (2023) | Sustainable Production and Consumption | Q1 |
| 2023 | Singh, Jain, Sharma & Nigam | Singh et al. (2023) | International Journal of Project Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Solaimani & Swaak | Solaimani & Swaak (2023) | Journal of Engineering and Technology Management | Q2 |
| 2023 | Su, Nguyen-Phuoc, Tran, Van Nguyen, Luu & Pham | Su et al. (2023) | Travel Behaviour and Society | Q2 |
| 2023 | Sun, Fu & Yang | Sun et al. (2023) | Journal of Innovation & Knowledge | Q1 |
| 2023 | Suryavanshi, Thomas, Trivedi, Patel & Bhatt | Suryavanshi et al. (2023) | Journal of Philanthropy and Marketing | Q4 |
| 2023 | Talib, Papastathopoulo & Ahmad | Talib et al. (2023) | Digital Policy Regulation and Governance | Q2 |
| 2023 | Tan & Wei | Tan & Wei (2023) | Journal of the Knowledge Economy | Q2 |
| 2023 | Tao, Ke & Zhang | Tao et al. (2023) | Journal of Organizational Change Management | Q4 |
| 2023 | Thapa, Mishra, Dey, Golias & Ashraf | Thapa et al. (2023) | Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems | Q3 |
| 2023 | Thu, Kadirov, Fam & Tho | Thu et al. (2023) | Journal of Macromarketing | Q3 |
| 2023 | Tiwari, Kaurav & Koay | Tiwari et al. (2023) | Journal of Marketing Analytics | Q3 |
| 2023 | Tumaku, Ren, Boakye, Ofori & Abubakari | Tumaku et al. (2023) | International Journal of Quality and Service Sciences | Q3 |
| 2023 | Wang & Wang | J. Wang & Wang (2023) | Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics | Q3 |
| 2023 | Wang, Li, Gao, Zeng, Wang, Li & Li | G. Wang, Li, et al. (2023) | Land Use Policy | Q1 |
| 2023 | Wang, Zhang, Luo & Abedin | X. Wang et al. (2023) | Journal of Environmental Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Wang, Zhang, Zeng, Meng & Lin | G. Wang, Zhang, et al. (2023) | Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Wood, Lowman, Armstrong III & Harms | Wood et al. (2023) | Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | Q1 |
| 2023 | Yan, Liu, Chen, Zhang & Wu | Yan et al. (2023) | Public Administration | Q1 |
| 2023 | Yu, Cheah & Liu | Yu et al. (2022) | International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management | Q1 |
| 2023 | Zhang | J. Zhang (2023b) | Current Issues in Tourism | Q1 |
| 2023 | Zhang | J. Zhang (2023a) | Journal of Sustainable Tourism | Q1 |
| 2023 | Zhou | Zhou (2023) | Frontiers in Psychololy | Q1 |
| 2023 | Zhu, Miao, Wang & Li | Zhu et al. (2023) | Electronic Commerce Research and Applications | Q1 |
| 2023 | Zielińska, Lebuda & Karwowski | Zielińska et al. (2023) | Personality and Individual Differences | Q2 |
| 2022 | Abdalla, Mwesiumo, Öztüren & Kılıç | Abdalla et al. (2022) | International Journal of Tourism Research | Q1 |
| 2022 | Afrin & Prybutok | Afrin & Prybutok (2022) | Health Promotion International | Q1 |
| 2022 | Anand, Arya, Suresh & Sharma | Anand et al. (2022) | Tourism Planning & Development | Q2 |
| 2022 | Arbabi, Khansari, Salamzadeh, Gholampour, Ebrahimi & Fekete-Farkas | Arbabi et al. (2022) | Journal of Risk and Financial Management | Q2 |
| 2022 | Bakır, Akan, Özdemir, Nguyen, Tsai & Pham | Bakır et al. (2022) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2022 | Bi, Li, Hua, Zhu, & Ye | Bi et al. (2022) | Transport Policy | Q1 |
| 2022 | Blom, Voorn & Borst | Blom et al. (2022) | Public Management Review | Q1 |
| 2022 | Bokhorst, Knol, Slomp & Bortolotti | Bokhorst et al. (2022) | International Journal of Production Economics | Q1 |
| 2022 | Bolívar, Roldán, Castro-Abancéns, & Casanueva | Bolı́var et al. (2022) | Management International Review | Q2 |
| 2022 | Cheung, Leung, Aw & Koay | Cheung et al. (2022) | Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services | Q1 |
| 2022 | Costa, Daher, Neves, & Velez | Costa et al. (2022) | European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology | Q2 |
| 2022 | Deng, Zhuang, Li & Yang | Deng et al. (2022) | Industrial Management & Data Systems | Q2 |
| 2022 | Ding | Ding (2022) | Journal of Innovation & Knowledge | Q1 |
| 2022 | Eggers, Risselada, Niemand & Robledo | Eggers et al. (2022) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2022 | Fan, Wang & Lu | Fan et al. (2022) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2022 | Fredrich, Bouncken & Tiberius | Fredrich et al. (2022) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2022 | Frommeyer, Wagner, Hossiep & Schewe | Frommeyer et al. (2022) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2022 | Gantert, Fredrich, Bouncken & Kraus | Gantert et al. (2022) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2022 | Glück & Scherpf | Glück & Scherpf (2022) | Psychology and Aging | Q1 |
| 2022 | Glück, Weststrate & Scherpf | Glück et al. (2022) | Journal of Happiness Studies | Q1 |
| 2022 | Gu, Wu, Wu, He, Tao, Ye, … & Qiu | Gu et al. (2022) | BMC public health | Q2 |
| 2022 | Han & Zhang | Han & Zhang (2022) | Managerial and Decision Economics | Q3 |
| 2022 | Hayat, Salameh, Malik & Yaacob | Hayat et al. (2022) | Technology in Society | Q1 |
| 2022 | Huang, Tung, Wang, Xu, Lam & Zhang | X. Huang et al. (2022) | Heliyon | Q2 |
| 2022 | Huang, Zhang, Wang, Li & Li | Y. Huang et al. (2022) | Journal of Innovation & Knowledge | Q1 |
| 2022 | Jain, Bhaskar, & Jain | Jain et al. (2022) | Research in Transportation Business and Management | Q2 |
| 2022 | Jaiswal & Zane | Jaiswal & Zane (2022) | Thunderbird International Business Review | Q3 |
| 2022 | Klimas, Czakon & Fredrich | Klimas et al. (2022) | European Management Journal | Q2 |
| 2022 | Koay, Cheah & Chang | Koay et al. (2022) | British Food Journal | Q2 |
| 2022 | Kopplin & Rösch | C. S. Kopplin & Rösch (2021) | Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services | Q1 |
| 2022 | Kopplin, Gantert & Maier | C. S. Kopplin et al. (2022) | Review of Managerial Science | Q2 |
| 2022 | Korman, Van Quaquebeke & Tröster | Korman et al. (2022) | Journal of Business and Psychology | Q1 |
| 2022 | Kwon | Kwon (2022) | Cryogenics | Q3 |
| 2022 | Lee & Borgonovi | J. Lee & Borgonovi (2022) | Comparative Education Review | Q2 |
| 2022 | Lee, Park, & Jeong | W. Lee et al. (2022) | Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, | Q1 |
| 2022 | Li, Niu, Liu & Wu | R. Li et al. (2022) | Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management | Q2 |
| 2022 | Liehr & Hauff | Liehr & Hauff (2022) | International Journal of Innovation Management | Q3 |
| 2022 | Liu, Yu & Damberg | Y. Liu et al. (2022) | Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship | Q4 |
| 2022 | Loh, Lee & Leong | Loh et al. (2022) | Expert Systems with Applications | Q1 |
| 2022 | Lu, Yang & Yu | Q. Lu et al. (2022) | International Journal of Emerging Markets | Q2 |
| 2022 | Matusek | Matusek (2022) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2022 | Pangarso, Winarno, Aulia & Ritonga | Pangarso et al. (2022) | Leadership & Organization Development Journal | Q2 |
| 2022 | Peng, Zhao, Elahi & Wan | Peng et al. (2022) | Technological Forecasting and Social Change | Q1 |
| 2022 | Pinochet, de Souza, Viana & Rodríguez-Abitia | Pinochet et al. (2024) | Revista de Gestão | Q3 |
| 2022 | Prakash, Jeyakumar Nathan, Kini & Victor | Prakash et al. (2022) | Plos One | Q2 |
| 2022 | Richter & Hauff | Richter & Hauff (2022) | Journal of World Business | Q1 |
| 2022 | Saraf, Saha & Anand | Saraf et al. (2022) | International Journal of Public Sector Management | Q3 |
| 2022 | Sharma, Dwivedi, Mariani & Islam | Sharma et al. (2022) | Technological Forecasting and Social Change | Q1 |
| 2022 | Sukhov, Olsson & Friman | Sukhov et al. (2022) | Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice | Q1 |
| 2022 | Torres & Godinho | Torres & Godinho (2022) | Small Business Economics | Q1 |
| 2022 | Tsekouras, Li & Benbasat | Tsekouras et al. (2022) | Information & Management | Q1 |
| 2022 | Wang, Jiang, Zhu & Song | L. Wang et al. (2022) | Journal of Management in Engineering | Q1 |
| 2022 | Yang & Hurmelinna-Laukkanen | Yang & Hurmelinna-Laukkanen (2022) | Technovation | Q1 |
| 2022 | Yuan, Xu, Niu & Guo | Yuan et al. (2022) | Journal of Environmental and Public Health | Q2 |
| 2022 | Zahrai, Veer, Ballantine, de Vries & Prayag | Zahrai et al. (2022) | Journal of Consumer Affairs | Q2 |
| 2022 | Zheng, Shi & Jiang | Zheng et al. (2022) | PloS one | Q2 |
| 2021 | Batey, Hughes, Crick & Toader | Batey et al. (2021) | Ergonomics | Q3 |
| 2021 | Camitan IV & Bajin | Camitan IV & Bajin (2021) | Frontiers in psychology | Q1 |
| 2021 | Delgosha, Saheb & Hajiheydari | Delgosha et al. (2021) | Information Systems Frontiers | Q1 |
| 2021 | Della Corte, Aria, Del Gaudio, Barney, Cobanoglu & Sepe | Della Corte et al. (2021) | International Journal of Hospitality Management | Q1 |
| 2021 | Du & Kim | Du & Kim (2021) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2021 | Ebrahimi, Khajeheian & Fekete-Farkas | Ebrahimi et al. (2021) | International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | Q1 |
| 2021 | Franke & Foerstl | Franke & Foerstl (2021) | Journal of Business Logistics | Q1 |
| 2021 | Hauff, Guerci, Dul & van Rhee | Hauff et al. (2021) | Human Resource Management Journal | Q1 |
| 2021 | Kopplin & Rausch | C. S. Kopplin & Rausch (2022) | Review of Managerial Science | Q2 |
| 2021 | Kumar | Kumar (2021) | Case Studies on Transport Policy | Q3 |
| 2021 | Lee & Jeong | W. Lee & Jeong (2021) | Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management | Q1 |
| 2021 | Lyu, Chin, Zhang & Liu | Lyu et al. (2021) | Journal of Consumer Behavior | Q3 |
| 2021 | Mazumder & Garg | Mazumder & Garg (2021) | International Journal of Information Management | Q1 |
| 2021 | Richter, Martin, Hansen, Taras & Alon | Richter et al. (2021) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2021 | Stek & Schiele | Stek & Schiele (2021) | Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management | Q1 |
| 2021 | Tuuli, & van Rhee | Tuuli & Rhee (2021) | Journal of Management in Engineering | Q1 |
| 2020 | Bouncken, Fredrich & Kraus | Bouncken, Fredrich, et al. (2020) | Long Range Planning | Q1 |
| 2020 | Bouncken, Ratzmann, Barwinski & Kraus | Bouncken, Ratzmann, et al. (2020) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2020 | Chaurasia, Kaul, Yadav & Shukla | Chaurasia et al. (2020) | Journal of Knowledge Management | Q1 |
| 2020 | Fujita & Kusano | Fujita & Kusano (2020) | Journal of East Asian Studies | Q3 |
| 2020 | Jabeur | Ben Jabeur (2020) | Environmental Modeling & Assessment | Q3 |
| 2020 | Karwowski, Jankowska, Brzeski, Czerwonka, Gajda, Lebuda & Beghetto | Karwowski et al. (2020) | Creativity Research Journal | Q2 |
| 2020 | Kobarg, Stumpf-Wollersheim, Schlägel & Welpe | Kobarg et al. (2020) | Industry and Innovation | Q1 |
| 2020 | Lee & Jeong | W. Lee & Jeong (2020) | Current Issues in Tourism | Q1 |
| 2020 | Richter, Schlaegel, Bakel & Engle | Richter, Schlaegel, et al. (2020) | European Journal of International Management | Q3 |
| 2020 | Richter, Schubring, Hauff, Ringle & Sarstedt | Richter, Schubring, et al. (2020) | Industrial Management & Data Systems | Q2 |
| 2020 | Tynan, Credé & Harms | Tynan et al. (2020) | Learning and Individual Differences | Q2 |
| 2019 | Fredrich, Bouncken & Kraus | Fredrich et al. (2019) | Journal of Business Research | Q1 |
| 2019 | Jada & Mukhopadhyay | Jada & Mukhopadhyay (2019) | Personnel Review | Q2 |
| 2019 | Knol, Slomp, Schouteten & Lauche | Knol et al. (2019) | International Journal of Operations & Production Management | Q1 |
| 2019 | Shahjehan, Afsar & Shah | Shahjehan et al. (2019) | Economic research-Ekonomska istraživanja | Q2 |
| 2019 | Tho | Tho (2019a) | Education and Training | Q2 |
| 2019 | Tho | Tho (2019b) | Baltic Journal Of Management | Q3 |
| 2019 | Toth, Dul & Li | Tóth et al. (2019) | Annals of Tourism Research | Q1 |
| 2019 | Wei & Chen | Wei & Chen (2019) | Sustainability | Q2 |
| 2018 | Kerwin, Hittle, Stredney, De Boeck & Wiet | Kerwin et al. (2018) | Journal of surgical education | Q2 |
| 2018 | Knol, Slomp, Schouteten & Lauche | Knol et al. (2018) | International Journal of Production Research | Q1 |
| 2018 | Tho | Tho (2018) | Journal of Management Development | Q3 |
| 2017 | de Vries, de Koster, Rijsdijk & Roy | De Vries et al. (2017) | Transportation research part E: logistics and transportation review | Q1 |
| 2017 | Karwowski, Kaufman, Lebuda, Szumski & Firkowska-Mankiewicz | Karwowski et al. (2017) | Intelligence | Q1 |
| 2017 | Luther, Bonfils, Firmin, Buck, Choi, DiMaggio, Popolo, Minor & Lysaker | Luther et al. (2017) | The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, | Q3 |
| 2017 | Shi, Wang, Yang, Zhang & Xu | Shi et al. (2017) | Frontiers in psychology | Q2 |
| 2016 | Golini, Deflorin & Scherrer | Golini et al. (2016) | International Journal of Operations & Production Management | Q1 |
| 2016 | Karwowski, Dul, Gralewski, Jauk, Jankowska, Gajda, Chruszczewsk & Benedek | Karwowski et al. (2016) | Intelligence | Q1 |
| 2016 | Van der Valk, Sumo, Dul & Schroeder | Van der Valk et al. (2016) | Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management | Q1 |
Several articles that apply NCA did not find a necessary condition (e.g., Batey et al., 2021; Golini et al., 2016; Gu et al., 2022; L. Luo et al., 2022; Peng et al., 2022) but the majority identified at least one. Not finding a necessary condition might be a valuable result, because such result tells that a supposed essential factor for an outcome does not need to be present and its absence can be compensated (e.g., Arenius et al., 2017). On the other hand, finding a large number of potential necessary conditions in an explorative study may not be informative when several conditions do not have a theoretical meaning or are trivial (e.g., Gantert et al., 2022; Klimas et al., 2022; Stek & Schiele, 2021).
NCA can be used in any type of research that aims to find causal relationships between causes and effects. With conventional regression based research methods (e.g, multiple linear regression, structural equation modeling), research questions about cause-effect relationships are often formulated like ‘what is the effect of \(X\) on \(Y\)?’ and related hypotheses similar to ‘\(X\) has a positive (or negative) effect on \(Y\)’. Such causal relationship imply an average effect of \(X\) on \(Y\) which can be graphically shown as an arrow between \(X\) and \(Y\) indicating a temporal direction: first \(X\), then \(Y\), with a + or - sign shown above the arrow indicating that \(X\) increases or decreases \(Y\) on average. However, the type of causality is usually not specified. The regression equation consisting of terms that are added to produce the average effect including an ‘error term’, implicitly assumes additive causal logic and average effects. Consequently, cause \(X\) is assumed to contribute to producing effect \(Y\) on average, and the absence of \(X\) can be compensated by the presence of other causes. In other words: \(X\) is an average contributor to \(Y\).
However, in NCA, cause \(X\) is assumed to be a necessary cause of \(Y\). The research question is formulated as ‘is \(X\) necessary for \(Y\)?’ and the corresponding hypothesis as ‘\(X\) is necessary for \(Y\)’. If \(X\) is necessary for \(Y\), single cause \(X\) can stop the outcome when it is absent or has a low value. It can be a bottleneck, a critical success factor or a must have factor. NCA does not make a claim about the average contributing effect of necessary causes.
This means that any conventional research question or hypothesis about causal relationships can be revisited from the perspective of necessity. The cause could be necessary (essential) for the effect. It is important to know whether causes are necessary or not, because if any necessary cause is absent, the effect cannot be achieved. In practice this means that acting on other causes than the bottleneck cause has no effect (no compensation possible) and would be a waste of effort.
The entire NCA method consists of three parts:
Using necessity logic for developing theoretical causal statements (theory, hypotheses).
Data analysis for calculating necessity parameters.
Statistical testing for evaluating necessity parameters.
Methodological backgrounds of NCA have appeared in several publications (Table 0.2).
| Year | Author(s) | Reference | Main contribution |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2016 | Dul | Dul (2016b) | Core article introducing NCA |
| 2016 | Dul | Dul (2016a) | Necessity logic in NCA and QCA |
| 2018 | Vis & Dul | Vis & Dul (2018) | Differences between NCA and QCA |
| 2020 | Dul | Dul (2020) | Text book for NCA |
| 2020 | Dul | Dul, Van der Laan, et al. (2020) | Statistical significance test for NCA |
| 2020 | Richter, Schubring, Hauff, Ringle & Sarstedt | Richter, Schubring, et al. (2020) | Guidelines for combining NCA with PLS-SEM |
| 2021 | Dul | Dul (2021) | Advanced topics of NCA (this book) |
| 2023 | Bokrantz & Dul | Bokrantz & Dul (2023) | Building necessity theories |
| 2023 | Dul | Dul (2023) | The diffusion of NCA in academia |
| 2023 | Dul, Hauff & Bouncken | Dul et al. (2023) | Guidelines for conducting and reporting NCA |
| 2023 | Richter, N. F., Hauff, S., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Kolev, A. E., & Schubring, S. (2023). | Richter et al. (2023) | Extended guidelines for combining NCA with PLS-SEM |
| 2024 | Dul, van Raaij & Caputo | Dul et al. (2024) | Reusing data for NCA |
| 2024 | Hauff, Richter, Sarstedt, & Ringle | Hauff et al. (2024) | Adding NCA results to IPMA of PLS-SEM |
| 2024 | Dul | Dul (2024a) | Comparing NCA’s causal logic with other causal logics |
| 2024 | Dul | Dul (2024b) | Sampling in NCA for qualitative and quantitative research |
Because NCA is an emerging method, new insights are gained, and extensions are being developed. This book intends to provide the latest insights and developments of NCA. The topics are selected from interactions with the research community at conferences, webinars, workshops and in email exchanges. Some topics are extensively covered, others await elaboration.
This book was first published online in 2021. As the NCA approach is developing, the content of the book is developing as well. The book will therefore remain an online book with a version number. Please, contact the author if you want to react on the book or wish to have new topics covered in it. Your contribution will be acknowledged.
The suggested reference to the book is Dul, J. (2021) Advances in Necessary Condition Analysis. The book is hosted on https://bookdown.org/ncabook/advanced_nca2/.
Version history:
Version 0.1 (October 10, 2021). First published (draft) version. Several sections under construction.
Version 1.0 (March 20, 2022). First full version. All sections available.
Version 1.1 (August 2, 2022). Extended with basic guidelines for good NCA practice, outlier analysis.
Version 1.2 (October 28, 2022). Extended with necessity theories, combining NCA and regression, interpretation of the bottleneck table.
Version 1.3 (January 4, 2023). Extended with the necessity experiment; major update of references.
Version 1.4 (March 1, 2023). Extended with visual inspection of the scatter plot, robustness checks, and data transformation.
Version 1.5 (August 2, 2023). Reorganized Statistics chapter, and extended with power analysis.
Version 1.6 (January 3, 2023). Major update of references.
The latest version is regularly updated with small fixes.
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