HISTORY AS LITERATURE: THE POLITICAL AND CULTURAL TRANSITION FROM KORYŎ TO CHOSŎN

Late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn, the inglorious end of one dynasty and the brutal beginning of the next, as even the brief summary below, in Book 2 of the Koryŏsa, suggests, was a fiercely contested period, historically and historiographically. The new rulers and especially the fourth king, Sejong, undertook many works to establish the foundations for a long-lasting dynasty. Legal reforms, re-siting the capital, development of agricultural technology, and a new alphabet were just a few of the elements in the program.

This section contains three examples of the struggle over history and historical culture, chosen to illustrate this transition period as one of forces contending not only in the political arena but also in the cultural and literary realms. The literary contestation begins with the famous sijo exchange between Yi Pang-wŏn, the dynasty founder’s fifth son (by a second wife), who eventually became its third king, and Chŏng Mong-ju, a highly regarded Koryŏ loyalist. The exchange shows, as do the stories in the Samguk yusa, the significant role that songs and poetry have played in Korean political history. The exchange illustrates the penchant in Korean literary history for connecting historical anecdote to lyric song, as if to legitimize the vernacular, emotional expression with a more formal setting. The exchange also points to the problems in literary history posed by the facts that the Korean alphabet was not developed until the mid-fifteenth century; no historical record reflects the exchange or includes the texts; and sijo and other vernacular forms were not collected until the eighteenth-century anthologies assembled by Kim Su-jang and Kim Ch’ŏn-t’ack. In a technical sense, then, the stories that accompany most sijo, including the one attributed to Chŏng Mong-ju, are apocryphal. Another way to acknowledge the same point, however, is to note that the oral tradition includes both the song and the story in its telling and reciting, whereas the written records divide them. The recapturing of the oral vernacular record, we might remind ourselves, was one part of Iryŏn’s purpose in assembling the Sampuk yusa.

The History of Koryŏ, Koryŏsa, reflects another aspect of the transition. Compiled by the successor, Chosŏn dynasty, completed at about the same time as the promulgation of the Korean alphabet, and assembled by the same group of scholars who had worked on the dynastic hymn, the Songof the Dragons Flying to Heaven, the History has a distinctly programmatic air to it. The narrative movement—-from the account of Wang Kŏn’’s founding of Koryŏ to the lugubrious, painful, embarrassing foolishness, corruption, and collapse of the final monarchs, including a brief flurry of monk’s sons occupying the throne—-argues implicitly that the Yi family’s rise to ascendancy was called for by events. The account of Chŏng Mong-ju’s murder at the hand of Pang-wŏn seems crafted almost as a legal brief, first to exculpate the dynastic founder Yi Sŏng-gye, then to demonstrate that the murder was carried out because of Pang-wŏn’s filial fears for his father’s life. Yi Sŏng-gye’s final comment about the people of Korea suggests the hope that they will form their opinions about the new dynasty and its leaders on the basis of historical facts as presented in the Koryŏsa account, rather than the rumors about which he expresses such alarm.

The Koryŏsa is more than just a plain, narrative history; it raises questions about the very nature of historical writing. On the Koryŏsa model, history is propaganda. It is also literary. The passage in which Wang Kŏn announces the ten injunctions and dies soon after is elegantly crafted, and Wang Kŏn’s final smile provides an artful conclusion. That scene was in turn ably rendered in the famous North Korean translation from literary Chinese into modern Korean published originally in P’yŏngyang in 1962, and republished, following the easing of political restrictions in South Korea, in 1991. The motif of a great leader’s smile can also be seen in depictions of the late North Korean leader Kim Il Sung, who in all scenes of providing on-the-spot guidance was shown with a warm smile on his face.

The third selection in this section on dynastic transition, the royal ode Yongbi ŏch’ŏn ka, Song of the Dragons Flying to Heaven, is discussed at length in the second part of this book. Here let it be noted only that the song represented the first official, public use of the new Korean alphabet; it constantly reiterated the parallel and yet distinct Korean and Chinese cultural /political histories and identities; and it engaged the vexing problem of old loyalties and resentments that always attended significant shifts in political alignments.

THE SIJO EXCHANGE BETWEEN YI PANG-WŎN AND CHŎNG MONG-JU

The following sijo exchange is said to have taken place between Yi Pang-wŏn (1367-1422), fifth son of Yi Sŏng-gye, founder of the Chosŏn Dynasty, and Chang Mŏng-ju (1337-1392), Koryŏ statesman and loyalist. (The numbers following the names are the entry numbers for these sijo texts in Ch’ŏng Pyŏng-uk’s Sijo munhak sajŏn. See the Notes for publication details.)

Things go this way, like them or not;
things go that way too.
What if the vines on Mansu Mountain
grow tangled and long? What of that?
Let us unwind just like them
and enjoy life a hundred years more.

Yi Pang-won (1641)

Though this body die
and die and die again,
White bones become but dust,
a soul exist, then not,
Still this single-hearted loyalty to my lord:
how could it waver, ever?

Chong Mong-ju (1666)

THE KORYŎSA: THE HISTORY OF KORYŎ

Book 2: The Ten Injunctions and the Death of Wang Kŏn

In summer, the fourth month, in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, the king summoned Minister Pak Sul-hŭi and presented him with a set of injunctions, instructing him as follows.

According to what I have heard, when Shun was cultivating the field at Yŏksan, he nevertheless inherited the kingdom from Yao; and although Emperor Ko Cho (Ko Tsu) was born in humble circumstances, he founded the empire. I too come from modest origins, a house quite without connections, and yet, with undeserved support for my leadership, neither avoiding the heat of summer nor shunning the cold of winter, dedicating mind and body to the task for some nineteen years, I unified the three Han (kingdoms), and have ruled for more than twenty-five years. But now I have grown old. I worry that those who succeed me will succumb to their passions and forget their discipline. This is a matter of great concern. I have therefore drawn up the following injunctions. They should be studied morning to night, and now and ever after used as a mirror for contemplation.

First, all the accomplishments of our country are due to the energy received through the many instances of the Blessed Buddha’s favor and protection. For this reason, temples of both the Meditation and Doctrinal schools should be established, and priests appointed to burn incense and conduct practice. Each part of this undertaking must be supervised carefully. It may happen that in later ages, corrupt officials may try to gain political power by acceding to the requests of the monks, setting one temple against another and stealing their domains. This must be prohibited.

Second, the new temples were all established in accordance with the decisions of the monk Tosŏn, who chose places that would have a favorable geomantic effect and confound the rebellious. Tosŏn said, if temples were built at random rather than in places that he selected, the virtuous strength of the land would become dissipated and the long life of the kingdom would be jeopardized. When we give thought to this, we are concerned that later generations of the royal house or officials or the leading families may very well desire to build prayer halls. But the end of the Silla kingdom serves as a lesson. Toward the end of that dynasty, many temples were built in a competitive striving for advantage, but as a result, the virtuous strength of the land was dissipated, and the state came to ruin.

Third, regarding the matter of the royal succession, it is well- established practice that the eldest son will succeed to the kingdom and the royal line. But in the case of ancient Yao in China, the succes- sion passed to Shun instead, because the next in line of the Yao house was deemed unworthy. This was truly an example of having the public interest at heart. If the eldest son is seen to be unsuitable, then let this throne pass to the next son. If that son too should prove unsuitable, then have the throne pass to the son considered by the various minis- ters to be most suitable. In this way, the royal line can be continued.

Fourth, from ages past our people have modeled culture and ceremonies on those of T’ang. But the two lands are different, and the peoples are also different. Do not be obsequious, trying to copy things exactly. The Khitan, who rule the land next to us, are nothing but a country of animals. The dress and institutions of such as they must never be taken as models.

Fifth, our task of uniting the three Han kingdoms was achieved with the help of the beneficial effect of the terrain. The western capital, favored by the virtues of the waters, acts as a foundation for the rocky veins of our land. A royal visit must therefore be made four times each year, without fail, during the mid-month of each season. Stay a total of at least one hundred days, and in this way secure the well-being of the kingdom.

Sixth, the Lamp-lighting Festival is meant to honor Buddha, while the Festival of the Eight Gates is to honor the god of the heavens, the five mountain peaks and other mountains, the great streams, and the dragon spirit. It may happen that in later ages, corrupt officials may try to modify our practice, but this must be prohibited.

Seventh, it is extremely difficult for the king to win the trust of the officials and the common people. In order to earn their trust, pay heed to criticism that is sincere, and avoid slanderers. Though it may be sweet as honey to hear others being reviled, pay it no heed; it will die away by itself. Furthermore, if corvŏe labor is relatively light and adjusted to the appropriate season, if the burden of taxes is reasonable, and if effort is made to understand the real difficulties of the farmer’s life, then the trust of the people will be gained, the prosperity of the country will be assured, and peace will rule among the common people. The Ancients had the following saying: “A fish will surely rise to a tasty-smelling bait; splendid generals will surely appear where generous rewards are given; birds will surely flee the drawn bow; the people will surely be virtuous where benevolence is bestowed upon them.” If rewards and punishments are reasonable, then the yin and yang will remain in balance.

Eighth, in the territory south of the Ch’aryŏng Mountains and beyond the Kongju River, the shapes of the mountain ranges and the features of the terrain are disordered. The character of the people of that place is likewise disordered. If they should manage to work their way into government or marry into the royal family and seize political office, they will bring turmoil and disaster to the country. Or in their continuing resentment at Paekche’s incorporation into the unified kingdom, they might demonstrate their feelings and cause disturbances along the routes of the royal processions. Furthermore, there will always be slaves, or servants assigned to government facilities or such, who will try to place themselves under the protection of certain powerful individuals and avoid their proper service, just as there will be those who, attaching themselves to members of the royal family or officers of government, with their clever words and devious purposes will bring confusion to our deliberations and calamities to the kingdom. Even if such people have managed to become virtuous citizens, they must not be permitted to take office and seek to extend their power.

Ninth, observe that the lords and the various office holders have had their stipends set according to the relative size of the country. The system is already fixed, and there must be no changes made in it. The ancient writings inform us that stipends should be allocated in accordance with the merits of those who receive them; positions should not be awarded for mere personal gain. If perchance someone quite without merit or someone possessing only some form of family connection should be awarded an office, not only will the people below him resent and object to it, but the person in question will not be able to enjoy his good fortune for long. Greatest vigilance must be observed in this regard. Furthermore, because we are surrounded by treacherous and powerful neighbors, even in peaceful times it will not do to become forgetful of the dangers. Honor those who serve in the military. Re- lease them from corvŏe labor, and in the fall of each year, take care to recognize and promote those who have earned a special distinction.

Tenth, one who is responsible for a household or a state must always be alert for chance disasters. Read widely, therefore, in history and the classics, taking past events as lessons for the present. Though the Duke of Chou was a great sage, he instructed his nephew Sŏng Wang to read and heed Without Idleness. Prepare it in scroll form, affix it to the wall, and look at it always when entering or leaving the room. Reflect on it.

At the end of these ten injunctions, four Chinese characters were added saying, “keep these in your heart,” so they would be treasured by the kings of future ages.

In May, the king’s illness caused him so much discomfort, he brought a halt to his work of governance. Attended by ministers Yŏm Sang, Wang Kyu, and Pak Su-mun, the king finally spoke as follows.

As Emperor Mun of Han observed, there is nothing born that does not die. Death is the fundamental principle of heaven and earth; it is the nature of all things. So it is that the wise emperor thought of it, concerned that it become otherwise too overwhelmingly sad.
Some twenty days have now passed since | turned ill. Dying is a returning, so what is there to be anxious about? This is what I believe, just as the emperor did.
I want you to work with the crown prince on such long-standing matters of state as have not yet been resolved, then report to me.

On the next day, the king’s illness turned severe. He was moved to Sindŏk Hall, and instructed the official Kim Ak to write down his final wishes. Once the draft was completed, the king could speak no more. All those in attendance broke into loud lamentations, at which the king asked, “What is that noise?” The attendants replied, “Our king has become like his subjects’ own mother and father. Now it seems that today his majesty is suddenly about to leave his subjects. Our sorrow is overwhelming.”

With a smile the king replied, “It has always been so, this fleeting life.” Soon after speaking these words, the king died.

The king had been on the throne for twenty-six years. He was sixty-seven years old when he died.

Book 117: Biographies: Chŏng Mong-ju

With the dynasty founder T’aejo’s (Yi Sŏng-gye) prestige steadily increasing, and the loyalty of the whole nation toward him growing as well, Chŏng Mong-ju became more aloof. He knew of Ta’ejo’s intent to rule, in association with Cho Chun, Nam Un, Chŏng To-jŏn, and the others, and was therefore determined to seize whatever opportunity presented itself to get rid of T’aejo.

It happened that, as the crown prince Sŏk was returning from China, T’aejo had gone out to meet him at Hwangju. When he went hunting at Haeju, however, T’aejo suffered a fall from his horse and was incapacitated. Chŏng Mong-ju heard the news, and with a joyful expression on his face he sent the following instructions: “Yi Sŏng-gye has fallen from his horse and is in critical condition. We can accomplish our plan once we deal with his supporters, Cho Chun and the others.” He immediately began to close in on Cho Chun, Chong To-jŏn, Nam Un, and some four or five others who had lent their support to T’aejo, intending to kill them as well as Yi T’aejo.

Meanwhile, T’aejo had returned as far as Pyŏngnando, where he planned to take lodging. His son T’aejong (Pang-wŏn) came to him and reported, “Chŏng Mong-ju is most certainly plotting to do us harm.” When T’aejo still made no reply, T’aejong added, “We cannot remain here.” T’aejo did not give his assent. Making another entreaty, T’aejong was finally able to assist his injured father to make his departure, and to complete the journey by palanquin back to the family compound that night. In his distress that the deed had not been accomplished, Chŏng Mong-ju went for several days without eating.

T’aejong asked his father, “What do you wish to do? The situation has become drastic.” T’aejo replied, “Life and death are a matter of fate. We can only abide patiently.” T’aejong consulted with his uncle’s son-in- law Yi Che and several others, including military personnel. He said, “The Yi family renders loyal service to the throne. This is well known by all the people of this land. But now as a result of Chŏng Mong-ju’s plot against us, we have come to have a bad reputation. Who will there be to redeem our family’s honor in the future?” As they sought to deal with Chŏng Mong-ju, Pyŏn Chung-ryang, the son-in-law of T’aejo’s elder brother, reported the details of their planning to Chŏng, who thereupon went to T’aejo’s house to see for himself how things stood. T’aejo managed to treat him the same as always.

As soon as Chŏng left, T’aejong said, “If we lose this chance we are done for,” and sent Cho Yŏng-gyu and five or six others after him. They attacked him on the road and killed him. Chŏng Mong-ju was fifty-six years old.

When T’aejong went in and reported this to T’aejo, he was greatly incensed at his son. In his injured state he struggled to rise, then angrily spoke to him, saying, “You have gone off on your own accord and killed the minister. Do you suppose the people of this land will actually think that I knew nothing about it? You were brought up to follow the dictates of loyalty and filiality, but now you have dared to commit this most unfilial act!”

T’aejong replied, “With Chŏng Mong-ju and his followers plotting against us, was I supposed to just sit and wait for disaster to befall us? My action was motivated by my filial concern. We must, in any event, call our loyal troops and have them make ready for any possible disturbance.”

T’aejo reluctantly summoned Hwang Hii-sŏk and sent him to the king. He reported, “Chŏng Mong-ju was protecting criminals, and plotted against your loyal subjects. He has already received punishment. If you would summon Cho Chun, Nam Un, or others, they can present our vindication.” After further close interrogation, the family and followers were sent into exile. Chŏng’s head was taken and displayed in the street, along with a sign that read made empty talk, led astray, plotted against the government ministers, and caused disorder to the state . As a further result of documents furnished by T’aejo’s followers, all of Chŏng Mong- ju’s property was confiscated.

Chŏng Mong-ju was a man of extraordinary talents, of bold vision, of principled loyalty and filiality. He studied diligently from earliest youth, conducted research in philosophy, and had many scholarly accomplish- ments, T’aejo always had the highest regard for his ability and would recommend him whenever he was on assignment in the various districts. He often put Chŏng’s name forward for advancement to minister of state. His care and service for the state were outstanding. Chŏng Mong-ju managed major affairs and resolved a number of difficult problems. His manner and character were inflexible, while his responses to various matters were al- ways appropriate to the situation. …

Under the present dynasty, (many) titles and honors were bestowed upon him. fie had two sons, Chong-sŏng and Chong-pon.

SONG OF THE DRAGONS FLYING TO HEAVEN

Book 1

VERSE 1
Haedong’s six dragons rise in flight,
their every deed heaven’s gift,
the sign the same as the Ancient Worthies.

VERSE 2
The tree with deep roots docs not tremble in winds;
its flowers are perfect, its fruit abundant.
Waters rising from deep sources do not vanish in drought;
forming a river they flow on to the sea.

VERSE 3
The King of Chou residing at Pin Valley
there began the works of empire.
Our ancestor residing in Kyŏnghŭng
there began the works of the kingdom.

VERSE 4
When he ventured among the barbarians
and the barbarians came to threaten,
he moved to Lofty Mountain,
and this was part of heaven’s doing.

When he ventured among the jurchen
and the jurchen came to threaten,
he moved to Virtue Source,
and this was part of heaven’s doing.

VERSE 5
The Late Worthy, the Duke of Chou,
told of a mud house by the banks of the rivers.
Those were the hardships
of founding an empire.

The mud hut on Chŏk Island
can still be seen today. These were the hardships of founding a kingdom.

VERSE 6
The virtue of Shang was waning;
one was about to take command of all beneath heaven.
The West River’s banks were like a market,
filled with followers.

The cycle of Koryŏ was ending;
one was about to rule the country.
The shores of the East Sea were like a market,
filled with followers.

VERSE 7
Red bird holding a message
perched on the bedroom door,
portent of imperial joy
at the august son’s revolution.

Snake carrying a magpie
draped it on the tree branch,
portent of future happiness
for the august grandson.

VERSE 8
Heaven chose the heir apparent;
older brother’s intentions were fulfilled,
the august son
was born.

Heaven chose the crown prince;
the royal decree proclaimed,
the august grandson
was born.

VERSE 9
He took up the heavenly indictment;
the lords gathered from the four directions.
His saintly elevation was long established;
even the western barbarians gathered before him.

Proclaiming justice, he turned the army;
people gathered from miles around.
His sagaciousness was profound;
even the northern barbarians gathered before him.

Book 2

VERSE 10
One man set loose the evils of the world.
The people waited for the emperor.
With round baskets holding yellow silk
they looked for him along the wayside.

A madman committed boundless cruelties.
The people waited for the banner of justice.
With simple food in jugs and bowls
they looked for him along the wayside.

VERSE 11
When the petition of Wu and Ye was successful,
many came to him from the entire land,
but because his virtue was surpassing
he continued to serve the outcast.

When he stopped his army at Wihwa Island,
all put their trust and confidence in him,
but because his loyalty was surpassing
he enthroned a king restored.

VERSE 15
Leery of the region south of the Yangtze,
he dispatched an envoy,
but who could have blocked
the rise of the Seven Dynasties?

Leery of the region south of the Kongju River,
he admonished his descendants,
but were the prophecies of the Nine Transformations
merely a human’s doing?

There follow additional verses on the actions and attributes of the dynasty’s founders, until verse 25 finally reaches the granting of the royal robe to Yi Sŏng-gye.

VERSE 25
Such was his virtue,
the soldiers who started away
returned, and cloaked him
in the royal robe.

This was his loyalty,
that subjects who had died
and come back to life
cloaked him in the king’s robe.

Additional verses describe the actions of the first rulers as they struggled to establish the new royal line. Verses 110-124 then present a remarkable series of admonitions to future monarchs. Two examples follow. Verse 25 is the final stanza.

VERSE 112
Pursuing the work of the king,
leading the army formations,
many were the days, one after another,
when he did not remove his armor.

When you stand draped
in the royal dragon robe
wearing a belt of precious jewels round your waist,
do not forget his example.

VERSE 116
Seeing the body on the road,
he gave up sleeping and eating,
refusing to look away from his tasks
even to see the autumn sky.

Heaven will abandon
those who care nothing
for the people in their afflictions,
so do not forget his example.

VERSE 125
One thousand years ago, in Hanyang,
the kingdom was established. The royal line may continue,
but only by worshipping heaven and serving the people
will the kingdom remain strong.
Oh King! Remember these things,
for if you go south on a hunting trip,
can you count on an ancestor to save it?