References

Adcock, Robert, and David Collier. 2001. “Measurement Validity: A Shared Standard for Qualitative and Quantitative Research.” American Political Science Review 95 (3): 529–46.

Barabas, Jason, and Jennifer Jerit. 2010. “Are Survey Experiments Externally Valid?” American Political Science Review 104 (2): 226–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055410000092.

Baum, Matthew A., and Yuri M. Zhukov. 2015. “Filtering Revolution: Reporting Bias in International Newspaper Coverage of the Libyan Civil War.” Journal of Peace Research 52 (3): 384–400.

Blaydes, Lisa. 2017. “State Building in the Middle East.” Annual Review of Political Science 20: 487–504. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev- polisci- 051215- 023141.

Blaydes, Lisa, and Christopher Paik. 2020. “Trade and Political Fragmentation on the Silk Roads: The Economic Effects of Historical Exchange Between China and the Muslim East.” American Journal of Political Science n/a (n/a). https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12541.

———. 2019. “Muslim Trade and City Growth Before the Nineteenth Century: Comparative Urbanization in Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia.” British Journal of Political Science, November, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123419000267.

Bove, Vincenzo, and Gunes Gokmen. 2017. “Cultural Distance and Interstate Conflicts.” British Journal of Political Science 47 (4): 939–49. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123415000551.

Branch, Jordan. 2016. “Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in International Relations.” International Organization 70 (04): 845–69.

Brooke, Steven. 2017. “Sectarianism and Social Conformity: Evidence from Egypt.” Political Research Quarterly 70 (4): 848–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912917717641.

Brooke, Steven, and Neil Ketchley. 2018. “Social and Institutional Origins of Political Islam.” American Political Science Review, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055417000636.

Bush, Sarah Sunn, Aaron Erlich, Lauren Prather, and Yael Zeira. 2016. “The Effects of Authoritarian Iconography: An Experimental Test.” Comparative Political Studies 49 (13): 1704–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016633228.

Chiozza, Giacomo. 2002. “Is There a Clash of Civilizations? Evidence from Patterns of International Conflict Involvement, 1946-97.” Journal of Peace Research 39 (6): 711–34. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343302039006004.

DiMaggio, Paul. 2015. “Adapting Computational Text Analysis to Social Science (and Vice Versa).” Big Data & Society 2 (2): 1–5.

Earl, Jennifer, Andrew Martin, John D McCarthy, and Sarah A Soule. 2004. “The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action.” Annual Review of Sociology 30 (1): 65–80.

Edelmann, Achim, Tom Wolff, Danielle Montagne, and Christopher A. Bail. 2020. “Computational Social Science and Sociology.” Annual Review of Sociology 46 (1): 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054621.

Grimmer, Justin, and Brandon M. Stewart. 2013. “Text as Data: The Promise and Pitfalls of Automatic Content Analysis Methods for Political Texts.” Political Analysis 21 (03): 267–97.

Huntington, Samuel P. 2000. “Try Again: A Reply to Russett, Oneal & Cox.” Journal of Peace Research 37 (5): 609–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343300037005004.

Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2003. “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars.” Perspectives on Politics 1 (03): 475–94. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592703000355.

Kocher, Matthew A., and Nuno P. Monteiro. 2016. “Lines of Demarcation: Causation, Design-Based Inference, and Historical Research.” Perspectives on Politics 14 (4): 952–75.

Krumpal, Ivar. 2013. “Determinants of Social Desirability Bias in Sensitive Surveys: A Literature Review.” Qual Quant 47: 2025–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-011-9640-9.

Ksiazkiewicz, Aleksander, and James Hedrick. 2013. “Implicit Attitudes in Political Science Research.” PS - Political Science and Politics 46 (3): 525–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096513000632.

Kubinec, Robert, and John Owen. 2021. “When Groups Fall Apart: Identifying Transnational Polarization During the Arab Uprisings.” Political Communication, 36. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/wykmj.

Kuran, Timur. 1995. Private Truths, Public Lies: The Social Consequences of Preference Falsification. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

———. 1991. “Now Out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989.” World Politics 44 (1): 7–48.

Lazer, David M. J., Alex Pentland, Duncan J. Watts, Sinan Aral, Susan Athey, Noshir Contractor, Deen Freelon, et al. 2020. “Computational Social Science: Obstacles and Opportunities.” Science 369 (6507): 1060–2. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz8170.

Lucas, Christopher, Richard A. Nielsen, Margaret E. Roberts, Brandon M. Stewart, Alex Storer, and Dustin Tingley. 2015. “Computer-Assisted Text Analysis for Comparative Politics.” Political Analysis 23 (02): 254–77.

Mazur, Kevin. 2019. “State Networks and Intra-Ethnic Group Variation in the 2011 Syrian Uprising.” Comparative Political Studies 52 (7): 995–1027. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414018806536.

Michalopoulos, Stelios, Alireza Naghavi, and Giovanni Prarolo. 2018. “Trade and Geography in the Spread of Islam.” The Economic Journal 128 (12): 3210–41. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12557.

Michalopoulos, Stelios, and Elias Papaioannou. 2016. “The Long-Run Effects of the Scramble for Africa.” American Economic Review 106 (7): 1802–48.

Mousa, Salma. 2020. “Building Social Cohesion Between Christians and Muslims Through Soccer in Post-ISIS Iraq.” Science 369 (6505): 866–70. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3153.

Nielsen, Richard A. 2019. “Women’s Authority in Patriarchal Social Movements: The Case of Female Salafi Preachers.” American Journal of Political Science, August, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12459.

Nillesen, Eleonora, Michael Grimm, Micheline Goedhuys, Ann-Kristin Reitmann, and Aline Meysonnat. 2021. “On the Malleability of Gender Attitudes: Evidence from Implicit and Explicit Measures in Tunisia.” World Development 138 (February): 105263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105263.

Nugent, Elizabeth, Tarek Masoud, and Amaney A. Jamal. 2018. “Arab Responses to Western Hegemony: Experimental Evidence from Egypt.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62 (2): 254–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002716648738.

Nugent, Elizabeth R. 2020. “The Psychology of Repression and Polarization.” World Politics 72 (2): 291–334. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887120000015.

Olsson, Ola, and Christopher Paik. 2016. “Long-Run Cultural Divergence: Evidence from the Neolithic Revolution.” Journal of Development Economics 122 (September): 197–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.003.

Oneal, John R., and Bruce M. Russett. 2000. “A Response to Huntington.” Journal of Peace Research 37 (5): 611–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343300037005005.

Pan, Jennifer, and Alexandra A. Siegel. 2020. “How Saudi Crackdowns Fail to Silence Online Dissent.” American Political Science Review 114 (1): 109–25. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000650.

Robinson, William S. 1950. “Ecological Correlations and the Behavior of Individuals.” American Sociological Review 15 (3): 351–57.

Russett, Bruce M., John R. Oneal, and Michaelene Cox. 2000. “Clash of Civilizations, or Realism and Liberalism Déjà Vu? Some Evidence.” Journal of Peace Research 37 (5): 583–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343300037005003.

Salganik, Matthew J. 2018. Bit by Bit: Social Research in the Digital Age. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Schuman, H, and M P Johnson. 1976. “Attitudes and Behavior.” Annual Review of Sociology 2: 161–207. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.so.02.080176.001113.

Siegel, Alexandra A., and Vivienne Badaan. 2020. “#No2Sectarianism: Experimental Approaches to Reducing Sectarian Hate Speech Online.” American Political Science Review 114 (3): 837–55. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000283.

Truex, Rory, and Daniel L. Tavana. 2019. “Implicit Attitudes Toward an Authoritarian Regime.” The Journal of Politics 81 (3): 1014–27. https://doi.org/10.1086/703209.

Wedeen, Lisa. 2002. “Conceptualizing Culture: Possibilities for Political Science.” American Political Science Review 96 (4): 713–28. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055402000400.