If they are integrated: \(\frac{\partial\hat{p}}{\partial \tau} > \frac{\partial p^*}{\partial \tau}\)
Empirical strategy
We leverage the exogenous variation in taxes over time and across regions and the variation of regulation across types of fuel to estimate the rate of carbon tax passthrough.
In particular we are interested in the differential effect of being an integrated station selling regulated fuel.
Ideally, we’d like exogenous variation of the tax. There might be some threats to said exogeneity:
If the stations can decide the percent of ethanol in the mix, their exposure to the tax would be endogenous.
There might be also unobserved demand/supply shocks that affect integrated stations’ pricing decisions.
Threat 1 is not a concern: stations do not decide the mix
Threat 2: we attenuate with fixed effects. Moreover, we are basically comparing a station to itself.
Results: all stations
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Tax(log)
1.11***
1.10***
1.82***
1.28***
1.29***
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.19)
(0.05)
(0.05)
Integrated
-0.31
-0.30
(0.20)
(0.17)
Regulated
5.79***
5.78***
5.89***
5.88***
5.88***
(0.13)
(0.14)
(0.11)
(0.12)
(0.12)
Tax(log)×Integrated
0.06*
0.06
0.05
0.07**
0.07**
(0.03)
(0.04)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Tax(log)×Regulated
−1.24***
−1.24***
−1.26***
−1.26***
−1.26***
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.02)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Integrated×Regulated
0.60***
0.56**
0.56**
0.62***
0.62***
(0.14)
(0.17)
(0.15)
(0.13)
(0.13)
Tax(log)×Integrated×Regulated
−0.12***
−0.11**
−0.11***
−0.12***
−0.12***
0.03)
(0.04)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Share
-0.04***
(0.01)
Num. obs.
2081508
2081508
2081508
2081508
2081508
Adj. R2
0.74
0.71
0.84
0.91
0.91
Num. groups: stations
4422
4422
4422
Num. groups: cities
779
779
779
Num. groups: month-year
62
62
62
Results: price cap markets
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Tax(log)
1.04***
1.06***
1.92***
1.19***
1.19***
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.14)
(0.14)
(0.14)
Integrated
-0.64*
-0.69**
(0.29)
(0.23)
Regulated
5.44***
5.54***
5.67***
5.49***
5.49***
(0.23)
(0.27)
(0.20)
(0.23)
(0.23)
Tax(log)×Integrated
0.14*
0.12*
0.13*
0.16**
0.16**
(0.06)
(0.06)
(0.05)
(0.06)
(0.06)
Tax(log)×Regulated
−1.17***
−1.19***
−1.21***
−1.18***
−1.18***
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.04)
(0.05)
(0.05)
Integrated×Regulated
1.13***
1.03**
1.06***
1.22***
1.23***
(0.33)
(0.31)
(0.29)
(0.32)
(0.32)
Tax(log)×Integrated×Regulated
−0.23***
−0.21**
−0.21***
−0.25***
−0.25***
(0.07)
(0.06)
(0.06)
(0.07)
(0.07)
Share
-0.01
(0.01)
Num. obs.
743016
743016
743016
743016
743016
Adj. R2
0.62
0.58
0.75
0.89
0.89
Num. groups: stations
2333
2333
2333
Num. groups: cities
661
661
661
Num. groups: month-year
57
57
57
Results: free markets
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Cost(log)
0.93***
0.94***
0.83***
1.05*
1.05*
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.24)
(0.36)
(0.36)
Integrated
−2.61***
−2.66***
(0.53)
(0.52)
Regulated
6.72***
6.78***
6.73***
6.71***
6.71***
(0.21)
(0.21)
(0.23)
(0.22)
(0.22)
Tax(log)
1.42***
1.42***
1.58***
1.63***
1.64***
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.09)
(0.12)
(0.12)
Cost(log)×Integrated
0.22***
0.22***
0.23***
0.22***
0.22***
(0.04)
(0.04)
(0.04)
(0.04)
(0.04)
Cost(log)×Regulated
−0.07*
−0.08**
−0.07**
−0.07*
−0.07*
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Integrated×Regulated
3.00***
2.98***
3.10***
3.03***
3.04***
(0.56)
(0.56)
(0.53)
(0.54)
(0.55)
Tax(log)×Integrated
0.12**
0.11*
0.11*
0.12**
0.13**
(0.04)
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.04)
(0.04)
Tax(log)×Regulated
−1.30***
−1.30***
−1.30***
−1.30***
−1.30***
0.03)
(0.04)
(0.04)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Cost(log)×Integrated×Regulated
−0.24***
−0.24***
−0.25***
−0.24***
−0.24***
(0.05)
(0.05)
(0.04)
(0.05)
(0.05)
Tax(log)×Integrated×Regulated
−0.17***
−0.15**
−0.16***
−0.17***
−0.17***
(0.03)
(0.04)
(0.04)
(0.03)
(0.03)
Share(log)
−0.31**
(0.08)
Num. obs.
856789
856789
856789
856789
856789
Adj. R2
0.92
0.89
0.89
0.92
0.92
Num. groups: station
1244
1244
1244
Num. groups: city
17
17
17
Num. groups: year-month
59
59
59
Summary results
Partial tax incidence by type
Summary results (2)
Effective tax incidence by type
Regulated
Yes
No
Integrated
Yes
0.30
1.77
No
0.34
1.64
Tax incidence is higher for integrated stations only if the good’s price is not regulated.
Robustness checks
Out of our 1371 of stations 552 sell only one kind of fuel.
We obtain the estimates with the 819 stations that sell both and the results hold.
Different brands might be more integrated and have different attitudes towards the rate of tax pass through. In that case the integration variable might be capturing the brand effect.
We obtain the estimates with brand fixed effects
Final remarks
We have shown that the passthrough rate of the carbon tax is higher when stations are vertically integrated
But only when the integrated station sells a good that is not subject to price ceilings
Our results hold even when the passthrough rate is obtained with a subsample of markets where stations do not face a price ceiling
Suggesting that the more elastic demand for regular gas plays a role